
Class __^IBLliu 
Book ' (D tff 



Copyright]^". 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 




MODERN SILAGE METHODS 



&^9 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. 



An entirely new and practical work on Silos, their construction 
and the process of filling, to which is added complete and 
reliable information regarding Silage and its compo- 
sition; feeding, and a treatise on rations, being 
a Feeders' and Dairymens' Guide. 



•1 J 



/ 



PUBLISHED 
AND COPYRIGHTED BY 



THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO. 
SALEM, OHIO, 
U. S. A. 






1903. 



THt LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 



Two Copies Receivae 

APR n 1903 

Capyn^iit Entry 

CLA^S CL XXc. No. 

COPY ». 



Copyrig-hted 1903, bj- The Silver Mfg. Co. 



•-• •-• 



, • • • . • 



^^■\^ 







^ 



L> 



SALEM, OHIO : 

THE A. K. TATEM LABEL CO. 

190:{. 



MODERN SILAGE METHODS. 



< • f O t> ' 






PREFACE. 

This book has been written and published for the pur- 
pose of furnishing" our patrons and others with accurate and 
full information on the subject of silo construction and the 
making" of silag^e. It has been the aim of the authors to 
present the subject in a clear matter-of-fact manner, with- 
out flourish of rhetoric or flights of imag"ination, believing" 
that the truth concerning" the advantag"es of the siloing" sys- 
tem is g"ood enoug"h. The testimony presented, which is pur- 
posely kept close to the experiences of authorities on feeding" 
subjects in and outside of experiment stations, will abund- 
antly prove, we believe, that the equipment of an American 
dairy or stock farm is no long"er complete without one or 
more silos on it. 

In order that a work of this kind be accurate and 
reliable, and bear the scrutiny of scientific readers, the use 
of a number of scientific terms and phrases is rendered 
necessary, and in order that these may be more ready com- 
prehended by Ag"riculturists, a comprehensive g"lossary or 
dictionary of such terms is included, following" the last 
chapter, which can be referred to from time to time, or can 
be studied previous to reading" the book. 

In the compilation of certain parts of the book we have 
had the valuable assistance of Prof. Woll, of Wisconsin 
Kxperiment Station, author of "A Book on Silage" and "A 
Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen". Free use of the 
former book has been made in the preparation of this vol- 
ume, as well as of experiment station publications treating" 
the subject of silage. 

, Hoping that '|Modern Silage Methods" will prove help- 
,",fui,to'!Q^i^ patrons, -and incidentally suggest to them that the 
' Ohi<) S.rja:gA Puttf fis ;dKd >31ower Elevators are manufactured 
by us, we are 

•. '.•.«. .V, ... . Very truly, 

'. » :♦ :•»•*».•* : '. .' THE SIIvVER MFG. CO. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Preface 6 

Intkoduction . 9 

• CHAPTER I. 

Advantages of the Silo — Preservation of a larger quar- 
tity of original food value enabled by the use of the 
Silo than any method known — Losses of nutritive 
value in dry curing — Small losses in the Siloing pro- 
cess— The Silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality — 
Economy of making — Economy of Storage — No 
danger of rain — No danger of late summer droughts 
— Food from thistles — Value in intensive farming. 

CHAPTER n. 
How TO Build a Silo. 

Silos — General requirements for silo structures — On 
the size of silo required — On the form of silos- 
Relation of horizontal feeding — Area and number 
of cows kept — Location of the silo — Different types 
of silo structures — Round wooden silos — The silo 
roof — Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo — Plaster- 
ed round wooden Silos — Brick-lined Silos — Stave 
Silos — Cheap Stave Silos — A modification of a Stave 
Silo — Connecting round silos with the barn — Other 
forms of round silos — Brick and Stone Silos — Silos 
in the barn— A small $30 Silo — Octagonal Silos — 
Cost and estimates for different kinds of Si os. 

CHAPTER III. 

Silage Crops — Indian Corn — Soils best adapted to corn 
culture and preparation of land— Varieties of corn 



for the silo — Time of cutting corn for the silo — 
Methods of planting corn — Other silage crops. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Filling the Silo — Indian Corn — Siloing corn "ears and 
all" — The filling process — The proper distribution 
of cut material in the silo — Size of cutter and power 
required — Length of chain elevator required — Direc- 
tions for operating "Ohio" Blower Cutters — Danger 
from carbonic-acid poisoning in silos — Covering the 
siloed fodder — Use of water in filling silos — Clover 
for summer silage — Freezing of silage. 

CHAPTER V. 

How to feed silage — Silage for milch cows — Silage in 
the production of certified milk — Silage for beef 
cattle — for Horses— for Sheep — for Swine — Silage 
for poultry — Additional testimony as to the advant- 
age of silage— Corn silage as compared with root 
crops — Corn silage as compared with hay — Corn 
silage compared with fodder corn. 

CHAPTER VI. 

A feeder's guide — Composition of the animal body — 
Composition of feeding stuffs — Digestibility of foods 
— Relative value of feeding stuffs — Feeding stand- 
ards — How to figure out rations- Grain mixtures 
for dairy cows — Average composition of Silage crops 
of different kinds, in per cent — Analysis of Feeding 
stuffs — Ready reference tables. 

CONCLUSION. 



Modern Silage Methods. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Twenty years ago few farmers knew what a silo 
was, and fewer still, had ever seen a silo or fed silage 
to their stock. Today silos are as common as barn 
buildings in many farming districts in this country, 
and thousands of farmers w^ould want to quit farming 
if they could not have silage to feed to their stock dur- 
ing the larger portion of the year. Twenty years ago 
it would have been necessary to begin a book describ- 
ing the siloing system with definitions, what is meant 
by silos and silage : now all farmers who read agricul- 
tural papers or attend agricultural or dair}^ conventions 
are at least familiar with these words, even if they had 
not had a chance to become familiar with the appear- 
ance and properties of silage. They know that a 
SllyO is an air-tight structure used for the preserva- 
tion of green, coarse fodders in a succulent condition, 
and that SILAGE is the feed taken out of a silo. 

We shall later see which crops are adapted for silage 
making, but want to state here at the outset that In- 
dian corn is pre-eminently the American crop suited to 
be preserved in silos, and that this crop is siloed far 
more than all other kinds of crops put together. When 
the word silage is mentioned we, therefore, instinct- 
ively think of corn silage. We shall also follov^' this 
plan in the discussions in this book ; when only silage 
is spoken of we mean silage made from the corn plant ; 
if made from other crops the name of the crop is al- 
ways given, as clover silage, peavine silage, etc. 

History of the silo. While the silo in one form or 
another dates back to antiquity, it was not until the 



lO INTRODUCTION. 

latter part of the seventies that the building of silos 
intended for manufacture of silage began in this coun- 
try. In 1882 the United States Department of Agri- 
culture could find only ninety-one farmers in this 
country who used silos. During the last twent}^ years, 
however, silos have gradually become general in all 
sections of the country where dairying and stock-rais- 
ing are important industries ; it is likely, if a census 
were taken of the number of silos in this county to- 
day, that we would find between a third and a half 
million of them. The silo is today considered a neces- 
sity on thousands of dair}^ farms, and we find most of 
them in the states that rank first as dairy states, viz : 
New York, Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, 
etc. The farmers that have had most experience with 
silage are the most enthusiastic advocates of the silo- 
ing S3^stem, and the testimony of intelligent dairymen 
all over the country is strongly in favor of the silo. 
Said a New York farmer recently in one of our main 
agricultural papers : "I would as soon try to farm 
w^ithout a barn as without a silo," and another wrote 
" I wouldn't take a thousand dollars for my silo if I 
could not replace it." The well-known agricultural 
writer, Joseph E. Wing, says, " No stock feeder who 
grows corn can afford to ignore the silo." " Buff Jer- 
sey," an Illinois dairy farmer and writer on agricult- 
ural topics, declares his faith in silage as follows : "I 
am fully satisfied that silage is a better feed, and a 
cheaper one, than our pastures." Another writer 
says : "The silo to my mind presents so many ad- 
vantages over the system of soiling that it is bound 
to eventually do away with the use of soiling crops." 
According to the Cornell Experiment Station, "the 
silo, especially to the dairy farmer, has become an al- 
most necessary adjunct to the equipment of the farm." 
Our first effort in writing this book wall be to pre- 
sent facts that will back up these statements, and 
how the reader the many advantages of the silo over 
s 



INTRODUCTION. II 

other systems of growing and curing crops for the 
feeding of farm animals. We shall show that up-to- 
date dairy or stock farming is well nigh impossible 
without the aid of a silo. The silo enables us to feed 
live stock succulent feeds the year around, and pre- 
serves the fodder in a better condition and with less 
waste than any other system can. We shall see the 
why and wherefore of this in the following pages, and 
shall deal with the best way of making and feeding 
silage to farm animals. We wnsh to state at the out- 
set that we do not propose to indulge in unwarranted 
statements or claims that will not stand the closest in- 
vestigation. In the early days of the history of the 
silo movement it was thought necessary to make exag- 
gerated claims, but this is no longer the case. Naked 
facts are sufficient to secure for the silo a permanent 
place among the necessary equipment of a modern 
dairy or stock farm. I»n discussing the silo we shall 
keep close to what has been found out at our experi- 
ment stations, and, we believe, shall be able to prove 
to an}^ fair-minded reader that the silo is the greatest 
boon that has come to modern agriculture since the 
first reaper was manufactured, and that with competi- 
tion and resulting low prices, it will be likely to be- 
come more of a necessity to our farmers in the future 
than it has been in the past. We aim to convince our 
readers that the most sensible thing they can do is to 
plan to build a silo at once if they do not now have one. 
It is unnecessary to argue with those who are already 
the happy possessors of a silo, for it is a general expe- 
rience where a farmer has only provided for immediate 
wants in building his silo that he will build another as 
soon as he has had some experience with silage and 
finds out how his stock likes it, and how well they do 
on it. 

Modern practice has proved that no man need say 
" I cannot afford a silo," because any farmer who is 
at all handy with hammer and saw can provide a silo 



1 2 INTRODUCTION . 

large enough for a medium-sized dairy with very little 
actual outlay of money. And this same built-at-home 
silo will earn for its owner money to build another, and 
enlarge his herd. 

We shall give directions for building several kinds 
of such silos on the following pages. While they will 
not be apt to last as long, and therefore are not per- 
haps as economical in the long run as more substan- 
tiall3^-built silos, still the}' do excellent service until 
some experience with making and feeding silage has 
been obtained, or until the farmer can afford to put up 
a more substantial structure. 

We mention this fact here to show farmers who may 
be considering the matter of building a silo, or who 
may be inclined to think that the silo is an expensive 
luxury, only for rich farmers, that the cost of a silo 
need not debar them from the advantages of having 
one on their farm, and thus secure a uniform succulent 
feed for their stock through the whole winter. Farm- 
ers who have not as yet informed themselves in regard 
to the value of the silo and silage on dairy or stock 
farms, are respectfully asked to read carefully the fol- 
lowing statements of the advantages of the silo system 
over other methods of preserving green forage for 
winter or summer feeding. 

It has been said "Whoever makes two blades of 
grass grow where but one grew before is a benefactor 
to mankind." A silo makes it possible to keep two 
cows where but one was kept before, and who would 
not gladly double his income ? Does not this interest 
youf 



CHAPTER I. 

ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

I. The silo e7iables us to preserve a larger quantity 
of the food materials of the original fodder for the feed- 
irig of farm animals than is possible by any other system 
of preservatio7i 7iow know?i. Pasture grass is the ideal 
feed for live stock, but it is not available more than 
a few months in the year. The same holds true witb 
all soiling crops or tame grasses as well. When made 
into hay the grasses and other green crops lose some 
of the food material contained therein, both on account 
of unavoidable losses of leaves and other tender p^arts, 
and on account of fermentations which take place 
while the plants are drying out or being cured. 

In case of Indian corn the losses from the latter 
source are considerable, owing the coarse stalks of the 
plant and the large number of air-cells in the pith of 
these. Under the best of conditions cured fodder corn 
will lose at least ten per cent, of its food value when 
cured in shocks ; such a low loss can only be obtained 
when the shocks are cared for under cover, or out in 
the field under ideal weather conditions. In ordinary 
farm practice the loss in nutritive value will approach 
twenty-five per cent. , and will even exceed this figure 
unless special precautions are taken in handling the 
fodder, and it is not left exposed to all kinds of weath- 
er in shocks in the field through the whole winter. 
These figures may seem surprisingly large to many 
farmers who have left fodder out all winter long, and 
find the corn in the inside of the shock bright and 
green, almost as it was when put up. But appear- 
ances are deceitful ; if the shocks had been weighed 
as they were put up. and again in the late winter, 
another story would be told, and it would be found 



14 ADVANTAGES OF THE SIEO. 

that the shocks only weighed anywhere from a third 
to a half as much as when they were cured and ready 
to be put in the barn late in the fall ; if chemical anal- 
yses of the corn in the shocks were made in the fall, 
and when taken down, it would be found that the de- 
crease in weight was not caused by evaporation of wa- 
ter from the fodder, but by waste of food materials 
contained therein from fermentations, or the action of 
enzymes. (See Glossar}^ ) 

The correctness of the figures given above has been 
abundantl}^ proved by careful experiments conducted 
at a number of different experiment stations, notably 
the Wisconsin, New Jersey, Vermont, Pennsylvania, 
and Colorado experiment stations. A summary of the 
main work in this line is given in Prof. WoU's Book 
on Silage. In the Wisconsin experiments there was 
an average loss of 23.8 percent, in the dry matter 
(see Glossary), and 24.3 per cent, of protein, during 
four different years, when over 36 tons of green fodder 
had been put up in shocl^s and carefully weighed and 
sampled at the beginning and end of the experiment. 
These shocks had been left out for different lengths of 
time, under varying conditions of weather, and made 
from dift'erent kinds of corn, so as to present a variety 
of conditions. The Colorado experiments are perhaps 
the most convincing as to the losses which unavoidably 
take place in the curing of Indian corn in shocks. The 
following account is taken from Prof. Cook's report 
of the experiments. As the conditions described in 
the investigation w411 apply to most places on our con- 
tinent where Indian corn is cured for fodder, it will be 
well for farmers to carefull}^ look into the results of 
the experiment. 

" It is believed by most farmers that, in the dry cli- 
mate of Colorado, fodder corn, where cut and shocked 
in good shape, cures without loss of feeding value, and 
that the loss of weight that occurs is merely due to the 
drying out of the water. A test of this question w^as 



I^OSSKS IN DRY CURING. 



15 



made in the fall of 1893, ^^^^ the results obtained 
seemed to indicate that fully a third of the feeding 
value was lost in the curing. This result was so sur- 
prising that the figures were not published, fearing 
that some error had crept in, though we could not 
see where there was the possibility of a mistake. 

*' In the fall of 1894 ^^e te.st was repeated on a lar- 
ger scale. A lot of corn was carefully weighed and 
sampled. It was then divided into three portions : 
one was spread on the ground in a thin layer, the sec- 
ond part was set up in large shocks, containing about 
five hundred pounds of green fodder in each, while the 
rest was shocked in small bundles. After remaining 
thus for some months, until thoroughly cured, the por- 
tions were weighed, sampled, and analyzed separately. 
The table gives the losses that occurred in the curing. 





Large Shocks. 


Small Shocks. 


On le Ground 

i 




Total 
Weight 


Dry 

Matter. 


Total 
Weight 


Dry 
Matter- 


Total 
Weight 


Dry 

Matter. 


When Shocked 

After Curing 

lyoss in Weight .... 
Per Cent, of Loss. . . 


Lbs. 

952 
258 
694 

73 


Lbs. 

217 
150 

67 
31 


Lbs. 

294 

64 

230 

78 


Lbs. 

77 
44 
33 
43 


Lbs. 

186 

33 

153 

82 


Lbs. 

42 
19 

23 

55 



" So far as could be told by the eye, there had been 
no loss. The fodder had cured in nice shape, and the 
stalks on the inside of the bundles retained their green 
color, with no sign of molding or heating. And yet 
the large shocks had lost 31 percent, of their dry 
matter, or feeding value ; the small shocks 43 percent, 
and the corn spread on the ground 55 per cent. 

"On breaking or cutting the stalks these losses 
were explained. The juice was acid, and there was a 
very strong acid odor, showing that an active fermen- 
tation was taking place in this seemingly dry fodder. 



1 6 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

We had noticed this strong odor the fall before and all 
through the winter. When the fodder corn for the 
steers is put through the feed cutter that same strong 
smell is present. 

" It can be said, then, that the dryness of the clim- 
ate in Colorado does not prevent fodder corn from los- 
ing a large part of its feeding value through fermenta- 
tion. Indeed, the loss from this source is fully as 
great as in the damp climate of New England. 

"As compared with the losses by fermentation in 
the silo, the cured fodder shows considerably the 
higher loss." 

In experiments at the Wisconsin station eleven 
shocks cured under cover in the barn lost on an aver- 
age over 8 per cent, of dry matter and toward 14 per 
cent, of protein. In an experiment at the Maine Sta- 
tion over 14 per cent, of dr}' matter was lost in the 
process of slow drying of a large sample of fodder 
corn under the most favorable circumstances. " It is 
interesting to note that this loss falls almost entirely 
on the nitrogen-free extract, or carbohydrates (see' 
Glossar}^), more than two- thirds of it being actually 
accounted for by^ the diminished percentage of sugars." 

Since such losses will occur in fodder cured under 
cover with all possible care, it is evident that the aver- 
age losses of dry matter in field-curing fodder corn, 
given in the preceding, by no means can be considered 
exaggerated. Exposure to rain and storm, abrasion 
of dry^ leaves and thin stalks, and other factors tend 
to diminish the nutritive value of the fodder, aside 
from the losses from fermentations, so that ver}- often 
onl}^ one-half of the food materials originally present 
in the fodder is left by the time it is fed out. The re- 
maining portion of the fodder has, furthermore, a 
lower digestibility and a lower feeding value than the 
fodder corn when put up, for the reason that the fer- 
mentations occurring during the curing process de- 
stro}^ the most valuable and easily digestible part, i. <?., 



THE vSILOING PROCEvSvS. I 7 

the sugar and starch of the nitrogen-free extract, 
which are soluble, or readily rendered soluble, in the 
process of digestion. 

2 . Losses in the Siloing Process. As compared with the 
large losses in food materials in field-curing of Indian 
corn there are but comparatively small losses in the 
silo, caused by fermentation processes, or decomposi- 
tion of the living plant cells as they are dying off. 
The losses in this case have been repeatedly deter- 
mined by experiment stations, and, among others, by 
those mentioned in the preceding. The average losses 
of dry matter in the fodder corn during the siloing 
period of four seasons (iSSy-'gi) as determined by 
Prof. Woll at the Wisconsin Experiment Station was 
about 1 6 per cent. The silos used in these trials, as 
in case of nearh^ all the early experiments on this 
point, were small and shallow, however, only 14 feet 
deep, were rectangular in form, and not always per- 
fecth' air-tight, a most important point in silo construc- 
tion, as we shall see, and a portion of the silage there- 
fore came out spoilt, thus increasing the losses of food 
materials in the siloing process. The losses reported 
were, therefore, too great, and there is now an abund- 
ance of evidence at hand showing that the figures 
given are higher than those found in actual practice, 
and the necessar}- loss in the silo comes considerabh' 
below that found in the early experiments on this 
point. There are plenty of cases on record showing 
that ten per cent, represents the maximum loss of dr}- 
matter in modern deep, well-built silos. The losses 
found in siloing corn at a number of experiment sta- 
tions during the last ten years have come at or below 
this figure. It is possible to reduce this loss still far- 
ther b}' avoiding an}^ spoilt silage on the surface, by 
beginning to feed immediately after the filling of the 
.silo, and by feeding the silage out rather rapidly. Ex- 
periments conducted on a small scale by Prof. King 
in 1S94 gave losses of only 2 and 3 per cent, of dry 



1 8 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

matter, on the strength of which results, amongst 
others, he believes that the necessary loss of dry mat- '' 
ter in the silo 7ieed not exceed ^ per cent. 

Summarizing our considerations concerning the rel-' 
ative losses of food materials in the field-curing and 
siloing of Indian corn, we may, therefore, say that far" 
from being less economical than the former, the silo is 
more so, under favorable conditions for both systems, 
and that therefore a larger quantity of food materials: 
is obtained by filling the corn crop into a silo than by 
any other method of preserving it known at the pres- 
ent time. 

What has been said in the foregoing in regard to' 
fodder corn applies equalh' well to other crops put^ 
into the silo. A few words will suffice in regard to 
two of these, clover and alfalfa. Only a few accurate 
siloing experiments have been conducted with clover, 
but enough has been done to show that the necessary' 
losses in siloing this crop do not much, if any, exceed 
those of Indian corn. Lawes and Gilbert, of the 
Rothamsted Experiment Station, England, placed 
264,318 pounds of first- and second-crop clover into 
one of their stone silos, and took out 194,470 pounds 
of good clover silage. Loss in weight, 24.9 per cent. 
This loss fell, however, largely on the water in 
the clover. The loss of dr^- matter amounted 
X.O only ^ .1 per cent. , very nearly the same amount of 
loss as that which the same experimenter found had 
taken place in a large rick of about fort}' tons of hay, 
after standing for two 3'ears. The loss of protein in 
the silo amounted to 8.2 per cent. In another silo 
184,959 pounds of second-crop grass and second-crop 
clover were put in, and 170,941 pounds were taken 
out. Loss in gross weight, 7.6 per cent.; loss of dry 
matter 9.7 per cent.; of crude protein 7.8 per cent. 

In a siloing experiment with clover, conducted at 
the Wisconsin Station, on a smaller scale, Mr. F. G. 
Short obtained the following results : Clover put into- 



THE SILOING PROCESvS. I 9 

the silo, 12,279 pounds ; silage taken out, 9,283 
pounds; loss, 24.4 per cent.; loss of dry matter, 15.4 
percent.; of protein, 12.7 per cent. 

There is nothing in any of these figures to argue 
against the siloing of green clover as an economical 
practice. On the other hand, we conclude that this 
method of preserving the clover crop is highh^ valu- 
able, and, in most cases, to be preferred to making hay 
of the crop. 

No extended investigation has been made as to the 
osses sustained in the siloing of aljalfa, but there can 
be little doubt but that the}' are considerabl}' smaller 
than in making alfalfa hay, if proper precautions 
guarding against unnecessary losses in the silo are ta- 
ken . According to the testimonj^ of Professor Headden 
of the Colorado Experiment Station, the minimum 
loss from the falling off of leaves and stems in success- 
ful alfalfa hay making amounts to from 15 to 20 per 
cent., and in cases where the conditions have been un- 
favorable, to as much as 60 and even 66 per cent, of 
the hay crop. Aside from the losses sustained through 
abrasion, rain storms, when these occur, may reduce 
the value of the hay one-half. The losses from either 
of these sources are avoided in preserving the crop in 
the silo, and in their place a small loss through fer- 
mentation occurs, under ordinary favorable conditions, 
amounting to about 10 per cent or less. 

There is this further advailtage to be considered 
when the question of relative losses in the silo and in 
ha3'-making or field-curing green forage, that hay or 
corn fodder, whether in shocks in the field or stored 
under shelter, gets poorer and poorer the longer it is 
kept, as the processes of decomposition are going on 
all the time ; in the silo, on the other hand, the loss 
in food substances is not appreciabl}' larger six months 
after the silo was filled than it is one month after, be- 
cause the air is shut out, so that the farmer who puts 
up a lot of fodder corn for silage in the fall can have 



20- ADVANTAGES OF THE SIIvO. 

as much and as valuable feed for his stock in the 
spring, or in fact, the following summer or fall, as he 
would have if he proceeded to feed out all the silage at 
once. 

" Generally speaking, 3 tons of silage are equal in 
feeding value to i ton of hay. On this basis a much 
larger amount of digestible food can be secured from 
an acre of silage corn than from an acre of hay. The 
food equivalent of 4 tons of hay per acre can easily 
be produced on an acre of land planted to corn." — 
(Plumb). 

3. Succiilcyice . Succulent Jood is Nature' s food. We 
all know the difference between a juicy, ripe apple and 
the dried fruit. In the dr3dng of fruit as well as of 
green fodders water is the main component taken 
awa}^ ; with it, however, go certain flavoring matters 
that do not weigh much in the chemist's balance, but 
are of the greatest importance in rendering the food 
materials palatable. It is these same flavoring sub- 
stances which are washed out of ha}- with heavy 
rains, and renders such hay of inferior value, often 
no better than so much straw, not because it does not 
contain nearly as much food substances, like protein, 
fat, starch, sugar, etc. (see Glossarj^), but because of 
the substances that render ha}^ palatable having been 
largel}^ removed by the rain. 

The influence of well-preser^'ed silage on the diges- 
tion and general health of animals is very beneficial, 
according to the unanimous testimon}- of good author- 
ities. It is a mild laxative, and acts in this way very 
similarh' to green fodders. The good accounts re- 
ported of the prevention of milk fever by the feeding 
of silage are explained by the laxative influence of the 
feed. 

4. Uniformity. The silo fiLrnishes a feed of unifor7n 
quality, and always near at hand, available at ^\\y time 
during the whole year or winter. No need of fighting 
the elements, or wading through snow or mud to haul 



ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 21 

it from the field ; once in the silo the hard work is 
over, and the farmer can rest easy as to the supply of 
succulent roughage for his stock during the winter. 
An ample supply" of succulent feed is of advantage to 
all classes of animals, but perhaps particularly so in 
case of dairy cows and sheep, since these animals are 
especially sensitive to sudden changes in the feed. 
Also, stock raisers value silage highly on this account, 
however, for silage is of special value for feeding pre- 
paratory^ to turning cattle on to the watery pasture 
grass in the spring. The loss in the weight of cattle 
on being let out on pasture in spring, is often so great 
that it takes them a couple of weeks to get back where 
they wej'e when turned out. When let out in the 
spring, steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter 
whether silage or dr}^ feed has been fed, unless they 
are fed some grain during the first week or two after 
they are turned out. 

5. Economy of Storage. Less room is required for 
the storage in a silo of the product from an acre of 
land than in cured condition in a barn. A ton of hay 
stored in the mow will fill a space of at least 400 cubic 
feet ; a ton of silage, a space of about 50 cubic feet. 
Considering the dry matter contained in both feeds, we 
have that 8,000 pounds of silage contains about as 
much dry matter as 2.323 pounds of hay, or 160 against 
465 cubic feet; that is, it takes nearly three times as 
much room to store the same quantity of food materials 
in hay as in silage. In case of field-cured fodder corn, 
the comparison comes out still more in favor of the silo, 
on account of the greater difficulty in preserving the 
thick cornstalks from heating when placed under shel- 
ter. According to Professor Alvord, an acre of corn, 
field-cured, stored in the most compact manner possible, 
will occupy a space ten times as great as in the form 
of silage. While hay will contain about 86 per cent, 
of dry matter, cured fodder corn often does not con- 
tain more than 60 and sometimes only 50 per cent, of 



22 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

dry matter ; the quantities of food material in fodder 
corn that can be stored in a given space are, therefore, 
greatly smaller than in case of hay, and, consequently, 
still smaller than in case of silage. 

Since smaller barns may be built when silage is fed, 
there is less danger of fire, thus decreasing the cost of 
insurance. 

6. No Danger of Rain. Rainy weather is a dis- 
advantage in filling silos as in most other farm opera- 
tions, but when the silo is once filled, the fodder is 
safe, and the farmer is independent of the weather 
throughout the season. 

If the corn has suffered from drought and Ijeat dur- 
ing the fall months, it is quite essential to wet the corn 
either as it goes into the silo, or when this has been all 
filled, in order to secure a good quality of silage ; and 
unless the corn is very green when it goes into the 
silo, the addition of water, or water on the corn from 
rain or dew, will do no harm. If the corn is too dry 
when put into the silo, the result will be dry mold, 
which is prevented by the addition of the water, 
which replaces that which has dried out previous to 
filling if this has been delayed. 

A common practice among successful siloists is to 
fill the silo when the lower leaves of the standing corn 
have dried up about half way to the ears. Generally, 
the corn will be in about the proper condition at that 
time, and there will still be moisture enough left in 
the plants so that the silage will come out in first-class 
condition. 

There must be moisture enough in the corn at time 
of filling the silo, so that the heating processes, which 
take place soon after, and which expel a considerable 
portion of moisture, can take place, and still leave the 
corn moist after cooling, when the silage will remain 
in practically a uniform condition for several years if 
left undisturbed. But if, on account of over-ripeness, 
frosts, or excessive drought, the corn is drier than 



ECONOMY OF SII.AGE. 23 

stated, it should be made quite wet as stated above, 
and there is little danger of getting it too wet. The 
writer has filled a silo with husked corn fodder about 
Christmas, and as the fodder w^as thoroughly dried, a 
^-inch pipe was connected with an overhead tank in 
the barn and arranged to discharge into the carrier of 
the cutter as the cutting took place, a No. 18 Ohio 
cutter being used for that purpose. Although the full 
stream was discharged, and with considerable force, 
on account of the elevation of the tank, and the cut 
fodder in the silo still further wet on top with a long 
hose attached to a wind force pump, it was found, on 
opening the silo a month later, that none too much 
water had been used ; the fodder silage came out 
in good condition, was eaten greedily by the milch 
cows, and was much more valuable than if it had been 
fed dry from the field. 

Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the 
case with second-crop clover, rowen, etc., on account 
of rainy weather late in the season, the silo will fur- 
thermore preserve the crop, so that the farmer may 
derive full benefit from it in feeding it to his stock. 
Frosted corn can also be preserved in the silo, and will 
come out a very fair quality of silage if well watered, 
as referred to above. 

7. No Danger of Late- Summer D?vughts. By 
filling the silo with clover or other green sum- 
mer crops early in the season, a valuable succulent 
feed will be at hand at a time when pastures in most 
regions are apt to give out ; then again, the silo may 
be filled with corn when this is in the roasting-ear 
stage, and the land thus entirely cleared earlier than 
when the corn is left to mature and the corn fodder 
shocked on the land, making it possible to finish the 
fall plowing sooner and to seed the land down to grass 
or to winter grain. 

8. Food from Thistles. Crops unfit for haymaking 
may be preserved in the silo and changed into a pal- 



24 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

atable food. This is not of the importance in this 
land of plenty of ours that it is, or occasionally has 
been, elsewhere. Under silage crops are included a 
number of crops which could not be used as cattle 
food in any other form than this, as ferns, thistles, 
all kinds of weeds, etc. In case of fodder famine the 
silo may thus help the farmer to carry his cattle 
through the winter. 

9. Value in Intensive Farmijig. More cattle can 
be kept on a certain area of land when silage is fed 
than is otherwise the case. The silo in this respect 
furnishes a similar advantage over field-curing fodders 
as does the soiling system over that of pasturing cattle; 
in both the siloing and the soiling system there is no 
waste of feed, all food grown on the land being utilized 
for the feeding of farm animals, except a small una- 
voidable loss in case of the siloing S3^stem incurred by 
the fermentation processes taking place in the silo. 

Pasturing cattle is an expensive method of feeding, 
as far as the use of the land goes, and can only be 
practiced to advantage where this is cheap. As the 
land increases in value, more stock must be kept on 
the same area in order to correspondingly increase the 
profits from the land. The silo here comes in as a 
material aid, and by its adoption, either alone or in 
connection with the soiling S3'stem, it will be possible 
to keep at least twice the number of animals on the 
land that can be done under the more primitive sj'S- 
tem of pasturing and feeding dry feeds during winter. 
The experience of Goffart, "the Father of Modern 
Silage," on this point is characteristic. On his farm 
of less than eighty-six acres at Burtin, France, he 
kept a herd of sixt}^ cattle, besides fattening a number 
of steers during the winter, and eye-witnesses assure 
us that he had ample feed on hand to keep one hun- 
dred of cattle the year round. 

We might go on and enumerate many other points 
in which the siloing process has decidedly the advant- 



VALUE OF THE SILO. 25 

age over the method of field-curing fodder or hay- 
making; but it is hardly necessary'. The points given 
in the preceding will convince any person open to con- 
viction, of the superiorit}' of the silo on stock or dairy 
farms. As we proceed with our discussion we shall 
have occasion to refer to several points in favor of 
silage as compared with dry feed, which have not al- 
ready been touched upon. We shall now, first of all, 
however, proceed to explain the methods of building 
silos, and then discuss the subjects of making and 
feeding silage. 



CHAPTER II. 

HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Before taking up for consideration the more import- 
ant types of silo construction, it will be well to explain 
briefly a few fundamental principles in regard to the 
building of silos which are common to all t3^pes of silo 
structures. When the farmer understands these prin- 
ciples thoroughl3% he will be able to avoid serious 
mistakes in building his silo and will be less bound by 
specific directions, that ma}^ not always exactly suit 
his conditions, than would otherwise be the case. 
What is stated in the following in a few words is in 
many cases the result of dearly-bought experiences of 
pioneers in siloing ; many points may seem self-evident 
now, which were not understood or appreciated until 
mistakes had been made and a full knowledge had 
been accumulated as to the conditions under which 
perfect silage can be secured. 

General Requirements for Silo Structures. 

• I . T/ie silo must be ai?'- tight. We have seen that 
the process of silage making is largely a series of fer- 
mentation processes. Bacteria (small plants or germs, 
which are found practically everywhere) pass into the 
silo with the corn or the siloed fodder, and, after a 
short time, begin to grow and multipl3Mn it, favored 
by the presence of air and an abundance of feed mate- 
rials in the fodder. The activity of the bacteria is 
soon discernible through the heating of the mass and 
the formation of acid in the fodder. The more air at 
the disposal of the bacteria, the furtl^er the fermenta- 
tion processes v/ill progress. If a supply of air is 
admitted to the silo from the outside, the bacteria will 
have a chance to continue to grow, and more fodder 



GENERAI, REQUIREMENTS. 27 

will therefore be wasted. If a large amount of air be 
admitted, as is usuall}^ the case with the top layer of 
silage, the fermentation processes will be more far- 
reaching than is usuall}^ the case in the lower layers 
of the silo. Putrefactive bacteria will then continue 
the work of the acid-bacteria, and the result will be 
rotten silage. If no further supply of air is at hand, 
except what remains in the interstices between the 
.siloed fodder, the bacteria will gradually die out, or 
only such forms will survive as are able to grow in the 
absence of air. 

Another view of the cause of the changes occurring 
in siloed fodder has been put forward lately, viz., that 
these are due not to bacteria, but to "intramolecular 
respiration" in the plant tissue; that is, to a natural 
dying-off of the life substance of the plant cells. From 
a practical point of view it does not make any differ- 
ence whether the one or the other explanation is 
correct. The facts are with us, that if much air is 
admitted into the silo, through cracks in the wall or 
through loose packing of the siloed mass, considerable 
losses of food substances will take place, Jirsf, because 
the processes of decomposition are then allowed to go 
on beyond the point necessarj^ to bring about the 
changes by which the silage differs from green fodder, 
and second, because the decomposition will cause more, 
or less of the fodder to spoil and mold. 

2, T/ie silo must be deep. Depth is essential in 
building a silo, so as to have the siloed fodder under 
considerable pressure, which will cause it to pack well 
and leave as little air as possible in the interstices be- 
tween the cut fodder, thus reducing the losses of food 
materials to a minimum. The early silos built in this 
country or abroad were at fault in this respect; they 
were shallow structures, not over 12-15 ft. perhaps, 
and were longer than they were deep. Experience 
showed that it was necessary to weight heavily the 
siloed fodder placed in these silos, in order to avoid 



28 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

getting a large amount of moldy silage. In our mod- 
ern silos no weighting is necessary, since the material 
placed in the silo is sufficiently heavy from the great 
depth of it to largely exclude the air in the siloed fod- 
der and thus secure a good quality of silage. In case 
of deep silos the loss from spoiled silage on the top is 
smaller in proportion to the whole amount of silage 
stored; there is also less surface in proportion to the 
silage stored, hence a smaller loss occurs while the 
silage is being fed out, and since the silage is more 
closely packed, less air is admitted from the top. As 
the silage packs better in a deep silo than in a shallow 
one, the former kind of silos will hold more silage per 
cubic foot than the latter; this is plainly seen from the 
figures given in the table on p. 31. Silos built during 
late years have generally been over thirt}' feet deep, 
and many are forty feet deep, or more. 

3. The silo 77nist have smooth, perpendicular walls, 
w^hich will allow the mass to settle without forming 
cavities along the walls. In a deep silo the fodder will 
settle several feet during the first few days after filling. 
An}^ unevenness in the wall will prevent the mass from 
settling uniformly, and air spaces in the mass thus 
formed will cause the surrounding silage to spoil. 

4. The walls of the silo must be rigid and very strong , 
so as not to spring when the siloed fodder settles. 
The lateral {^outward) pressure of cut fodder corn when 
settling at the time of filling is considerable, and in- 
creases with the depth of the silage at the rate of 
about eleven pounds per square foot of depth. At a 
depth of 20 feet there is, therefore, an outward press- 
sure of about 220 pounds per square foot ; at 30 feet 
a pressure of 330 pounds, etc. In case of a 16-foot 
square silo where the sill is 30 feet below the top of 
the silage the side pressure on the lower foot of the 
wall would be about 16x330, or 5280 pounds. 

It is because of this great pressure that it is so diffi- 
cult to make large rectangular silos deep enough to be 



SIZE OF THE SILO. 29 

economical, and it is because the walls of rectangular 
silos always spring more or less under the pressure of 
the silage that this seldom keeps as well in them as it 
does in those whose walls cannot spring. 

As the silage in the lower part of the silo continues 
to settle, the stronger outward pressure there spreads 
the myalls more than higher up and the result is the 
wall ma}' be actually forced away from the silage, so 
that air ma}- enter from above ; and even if this does 
not occur the pressure against the sides will be vSO 
much lessened above b}' the greater spreading below 
that if the walls are at all open, air will more readily 
enter through them. 

In the round wooden silos every board acts as a hoop 
and as the wood stetches but little lengthwise there 
can be but little spreading of such walls, and in the 
case of stave silos the iron hoops prevent any spread- 
ing, and it is on account of these facts that the round 
silo is rapidly replacing every other form. 

After the silage has once settled, there is no lateral 
pressure in the silo ; cases are on record where a filled 
silo has burned down to the ground with the silage re- 
maining practically intact as a tall stack. 

Other points of importance in silo building which 
do not apply to all kinds of silos, will be considered 
when we come to describe different kinds of silo 
structures. Several questions present themselves at 
this point for consideration, viz., how large a silo shall 
be built, where it is to be located, and what form of 
silo is preferable under different conditions ? 

On the Sii^e of Silo Required. 

In planning a silo the first point to be decided is 
how large it shall be made. We will suppose that a 
farmer has a herd of twenty-five cows, to which he 
wishes to feed silage during the winter season, say for 
180 days. We note at this point that silage will not 
be likely to give best results with milch cows, or with 



30 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

any other class of farm animals, when it furnishes the 
entire portion of the dr}- matter of the feed ration. 
As a rule, it will not be well to feed over forty pounds 
of silage daily per head. If this quantity be fed 
daily, on an average for a season of i8o days, we 
have for the twenty-five cows 180,000 pounds, or nine- 
ty tons. On account of the fermentation processes 
taking place in the silo, we have seen that there is an 
unavoidable loss of food materials during the siloing 
period, amounting to, perhaps, 10 per cent. : we must, 
therefore, put more than the quantity given into the 
silo. If ninety tons of silage is wanted, about one 
hundred tons of fodder corn must be placed in the 
silo ; w^e figure, therefore, that we shall need about 4 
tons of silage per head for the winter, but, perhaps, 
5 tons per head would be a safer calculation, and pro- 
vide for some increase in the size of the herd. 

Corn silage will weigh from thirty pounds, or less, 
to toward fifty pounds per cubic foot, according to 
the depth in the silo from which it is taken, and the 
amount of moisture which it contains. We may take 
forty pounds as an average weight of a cubic foot of 
corn silage. One ton of silage will, accordingly, take 
up fifty cubic feet ; and 100 tons, 5000 cubic feet. If 
a rectangular one-hundrd-ton silo is to be built, say 
12x14 feet, it must then have a height of 30 feet. If 
a square silo is wanted, it might be given dimensions 
12x12x35 feet, or 13x13x30 feet; if a circular silo 
the following dimensions will be about right ; diameter 
16 feet, height of silo 26 feet, etc. In the same way; 
a silo holding 200 tons of corn or clover silage may be 
built of the dimensions 16x24x26 feet, 20x20x25 feet, 
or, if round, diameter, 20 feet, height 32 feet. etc. 

Since the capacity of round silos is not as readily 
computed as in case of rectangular silos, we give be- 
low a table which shows at a glance the approximate 
number of tons of silage that a round silo, of a diam- 



CAPACITY OF ROUND SILOS. 



31 



eter from 10 to 26 feet, and 20 to ^2 feet deep, will 
hold. 

Approximate Capacity of Cylindricai, S11.0S, for Well- 
Matured Corn Silage, in Tons. 



Depth 

OF 

Silo 
i Feet. 

20 

21 

22 

i23 

^24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

;31 

32 









Inside Diameter 


OF Silo, Feet. 






10 
26 


12 

3S 


14 
51 


15 


16 


18 


20 


21 


22 


23 
138 


24 


25 


59 


67 


85 


105 


115 


127 


151 


163 


28 


40 


55 


63 


72 


91 


112 


123 


135 


148 


161 


175 


30 


43 


59 


07 


77 


97 


120 


132 


145 


158 


172 


187 


32 


46 


62 


72 


82 


103 


128 


141 


154 


169 


184 


199 


34 


49 


66 


76 


87 


110 


135 


149 


164 


179 


195 


212 


36 


52 


70 


81 


90 


116 


143 


158 


173 


190 


206 


224 


38 


55 


74 


85 


97 


123 


152 


168 


184 


201 


219 


237 


40 


58 


78 


90 


103 


130 


160 


177 


194 


212 


231 


251 


42 


61 


83 


95 


108 


137 


169 


186 


204 


223 


243 


264 


45 


64 


88 


100 


114 


144 


178 


196 


215 


235 


265 


278 


47 


68 


93 


105 


119 


151 


187 


20b 


226 


247 


269 


292 


4') 


70 


96 


110 


125 


158 


195 


215 


236 


258 


282 


305 


51 


73 


101 


115 


131 


166 


205 


226 


248 


271 


295 


320 



26 

177 
189 
202 
216 
229 
242 
257 
271 
285 
300 
315 
330 
340 



The following table which has been reproduced from 
,a trade 23ublication shows at a glance how much silage 
,is required to keep eight to forty-five cows for six 
months, feeding them 40 lbs. a day, and the dimensions 
.of circular silos as well as the area of land required to 
•furnish the different amounts of feed given, computed 
at 15 tons per acre. The amounts of silage given in 
the table refer to the number of tons in the silo after 
all shrinkage has occurred; as the condition of the 
corn as placed in the silo differs considerably, these 
figures may vary in different years, or with different 
crops of corn, and should not be interpreted too strictly; 
the manner of filling the silo will also determine how 
much corn the silo will hold: if the silo is filled with 
well-matured corn, and after this has settled for a 
couple of days, filled up again, it will hold at least ten 
per cent more silage than w^hen it is filled rapidly and 
iiot refilled after settling. To the person about to fill 
a silo for the first time, it is suggested that it requires 



32 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



a "good crop" to yield 15 tons per acre, and as a "lit- 
tle too much is about right," be sure to plant enough 
to fill the silo full, being guided by the condition of 
soil, etc., under his control. 



Dimensions. 


Capacity Tons. 


Acres to fill, 15 
Tons to Acre. 


Cows it will keep 
6 months. 40 lbs. 
feed per day. 


10 X 20 


28 


2 


8 


12 X 20 


40 


3 


II 


12 X 24 
' 12 X 28 


49 
60 


3 2-5 
4 


13 
15 


14 X 22 


6r 


4 \-2 


17 


14 X 24 
14 X 28 


67 
83 


4 2-3 

5 2-3 


19 

22 


14 X 30 
16 X 24 
16 X 26 


93 

87 
97 


6 
6 2-5 

7 


23 
24 
26 


16 X 30 


119 


8 


29 


18 X 30 

18x36 


151 
180 


lo 1-5 

\2 1-3 


37 
45 



On the F'orm of Silos. 

The first kind of silos built, in this country or 
abroad, were simply holes or pits in the ground, into 
which the fodder was dumped, and the pit was then 
covered with a layer of dirt and, sometimes at least, 
weighted with planks and stones. Then, when it was 
found that a large proportion of the feed would spoil 
by this crude method, separate silo structures were 
built, first of stone, and later on, of wood, brick or 
cement. As previously stated, the first separate silos 
built were rectangular, shallow structures, with a door 
opening at one end. The silos of the French pioneer 
Siloist, Auguste Goffart, were about i6 feet high and 
40X i6 feet at the bottom. Another French silo built 
about fifty years ago, was 206x2154 feet, and 15 feet 
deep, holding nearly 1500 tons of silage. Silos of a 
similar type, but of smaller dimensions, were built in 
this country in the early stages of silo building. Ex- 
perience had taught siloists that it was necessary to 



ON THK FORM OF SILOS. 33 

weight the fodder heavily in these silos, in order to 
avoid the spoiling of large quantities of silage. In 
Goff art's silos, boards were thus placed on top of the 
siloed fodder, and the mass was weighted at the rate 
of one hundred pounds per square foot. 

It was found, however, after some time, that this 
heavy weighting could be dispensed with by making 
the silos deep, and gradually the deep silos came more 
and more into use. These silos were first built in this 
country in the latter part of the eighties; at the pres- 
ent time none but silos at least twenty to twenty-four 
feet deep are built, no matter of what form or material 
they are made, and most silos built are at least twenty- 
four to thirty feet deep, or more. 

Since 1892 the cylindrical form of silos has become 
more and more general. These silos have the advan- 
tage over all other kinds in point of cost and coven- 
ience, as well as quality of the silage obtained. We 
shall, later on, have an occasion to refer to the relative 
cost of the various forms of silos, and shall here only 
mention a few points in favor of the round silos. 

1. Round silos can be built cheaper than square 
ones, because it takes less lumber per cubic foot capac- 
ity, and because lighter material may be used in their 
construction. The sills and studding here do no work 
except to support the roof, since the lining acts as a 
hoop to prevent spreading of the wall. 

2. One of the CvSsentials in silo building is that 
there shall be a minimum of surface and wall exposure 
of the silage, as both the cost and the danger from 
losses through spoiling are thereb}^ reduced. The 
round silos are superior to all other forms in regard to 
this point, as will be readily seen from an exaniple: A 
rectangular silo, 16x32x24 feet, has the same number 
of square feet of wall surface as a square silo, 24x24 
feet, and of the same depth, or as a circular silo 30 
feet in diameter and of the same depth; but these silos 
will hold about the following quantities of silage: 



34 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Rectangular silo, 246 tons; square silo, 276 tons; 
circular silo, 338 tons. Less lumber will, therefore, be 
needed to hold a certain quantity of silage in case of 
square silos than in case of rectangular ones, and less 
for cj'lindrical silos than for square ones, the cylindri- 
cal form being, therefore, the most economical of the 
three t^-pes. 

3. Silage of all kinds will usualh' begin to spoil 
after a few daj's, if left exposed to the air; hence the 
necessit}' of considering the extent of surface exposure 
of silage in the silo while it is being fed out. In a 
deep silo there is less silage exposed in the surface 
laj^er in proportion to the contents than in shallow 
silos. Experience has taught us that if the silage is 
fed down at a rate slower than 1.2 inches daih*, mold- 
ing is liable to set in. About two inches of the top 
layer of the silage should be fed out dail}^ during cold 
weather in order to prevent the silage from spoiling; 
in warm weather about three inches must be taken oif 
daily; if a deeper layer of silage can be fed off daily, 
there will be less waste of food materials; some 
farmers thus plan to feed off 5 or 6 inches of silage 
daily. The form of the silo must therefore be planned, 
according to the size of the herd, with special refer- 
ence to this point. Professor King estimates that 
there should be a feeding surface in the silo of about 
five square feet per cow in the herd ; a herd of thirty 
cows wull then require 150 square feet of feeding sur- 
face, or the inside diameter of the silo should be 14 
feet ; for a herd of forty cows a silo with a diameter 
of 16 feet will be required ; for fifty cows, a diameter 
of 18 feet ; for one hundred cows, a diameter of 251^ 
feet, etc. 

He gives the following table showing the number 
of cows required to eat 1.2 to 2 inches of silage daily 
in silos 24 and 30 feet deep, assuming that they are 
fed 40 lbs. of silage daily for 180 or 240 days : 



DIAMETER AND DEPTH OF THE vSILO. 



35 



Relation of Horizontal Feeding Area and Number of Cows 
Kept, for Silos 24 and 30 Feet Deep. 





Feed for 


240 Days. 


1 

Feed FOE 


. 180 Days. 




Silo 


Silo 


Silo 


Silo 


No. 


24 feet deep. 


30 feet deep. 


24 feet deep. 


SO feet deep. 


OF 










Cows. 


Rate 


Rate 


Rate 


Rate , 




1.2 in daily. 


1.5 in. daily. 


1.6 in. daily. 


2 in. daily. 




Tons. 


Inside 
diam. 


Tons. 


Inside 
diam. 

Feet. 


Tons. 


Inside 
diam. 


Tons. 


Inside 
diam. 






Feet. 






Feet. 




Feet. 


10. . . 


48 


12 


48 


10 


36 


10 


36 


9 


15 • 


7^ 


15 


72 


12 


54 


13 


54 


II 


20. . . 


96 


17 


96 


14 


72 


I5 


72 


12 


25 .. 


120 


19 


120 


16 


90 


16 


90 


14 


30 


144 


21 


144 


18 


108 


18 


108 


i5 


35-. • 


168 


22 


168 


19 


126 


19 


126 


16 


40.. . 


192 


24 


192 


20 


144 


21 


144 


18 


45... 


216 


26 


216 


21 


162 


22 


162 


19 . 


50... 


240 


27 


240 


23 


180 


23 


180 


20 


60... 


288 


29 


288 


20 


216 


25 


216 


21 


70... 


336 


32 


336 


27 


252 


27 


252 


23 


80... 


384 


34 


3H4 


29 


288 


29 


288 


25 


90... 


432 


36 


432 


30 


324 


31 


324 


26 


100. . 


480 


3H 


480 


32 


360 


33 


360 


28 



In choosing diameters and depths for silos for par- 
ticular herds, individual needs and conditions must 
decide which is best. It may be said, in general, that 
for the smaller sizes of silos the more shallow ones 
will be somewhat cheaper in construction aud be more 
easily filled with small powers. For large herds the 
deeper types are best and cheapest. 

One of the most common mistakes made in silo con- 
struction is that of making it too large in diameter for 
the amount of stock to be fed silage. Wherever silage 
heats and molds badly on or below the feeding surface 



\ 



36 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

heav3' loss in feeding value is being sustained, and in 
such cases the herd should be increased so that the 
losses ma}^ be prevented by more rapid feeding. (King.) 

l/Ocation of the Silo. 

The location of the silo is a matter of great import- 
ance, which has to be decided upon at the start. The 
feeding of the silage is an every-day job during the 
whole winter and spring, and twice a day at that. 
Other things being equal, the nearest available place 
is therefore the best. The silo should be as handy to 
get at from the barn as possible. The condition of 
the ground must be considered. If the ground is dry 
outside the barn, the best plan to follow is to build the 
silo there, in connection with the barn, going four to 
six feet below the surface, and providing for doors 
opening directly into the barn. The bottom of the 
silo should be on or below the level where the cattle 
stand, and, if practicable, the silage should be moved 
out and placed before the cows at a single handling. 
While it is important to have the silo near at hand, it 
should be so located, in case the silage is used for milk 
production, that silage odors do not penetrate the 
whole stable, at milking or at other times. Milk is 
very sensitive to odors, and unless care is taken to 
feed silage after milking, and to have pure air, free 
from silage odor, in the stable, at the time of milking, 
there will be a silage flavor to the milk. This will not 
be sufficiently pronounced to be noticed by most peo- 
ple, and some people cannot notice it at all ; but when 
a person is suspicious, he can generally discover it. 
So far as is known this odor is not discernible in either 
butter or cheese made from silage-flavored milk, nor 
does it seem to affect the keeping qualities of the milk 
in any wslj. 

Different Types of Silo Structures. 

Silos may be built of wood, stone, brick or cement. 



THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SILOS. 37 

or partly of one and partly of another of these materi- 
als. Wooden silos may be built of several layers of 
thin boards nailed to uprights, or of single planks 
(staves), or may be plastered inside. The material 
used will largely be determined by local conditions ; 
where lumber is cheap, and stone high, wooden silos 
will generally be built ; where the opposite is true, 
stone or brick silos will have the advantage in point 
of cheapness, while concrete silos are likelj' to be pre- 
ferred where cobble-stones are at hand in abundance, 
and lumber or stone are hard to get at a reasonable 
cost. So far as the quality of the silage made in any 
of these kinds of silos is concerned, there is no differ- 
ence when the silos are properly built. The longevity 
of stone and concrete silos is usually greater than that 
of wooden silos, since the latter are more easily at- 
tacked by the silage juices and are apt to decay in 
places after a number of years, unless special precau- 
tions are taken to preserve them. A well-built and 
well-cared- for wooden silo should, however, last almost 
indefinitely. 

As regards the form of the silo, it may be built in 
rectangular form, square, octagon or round. We 
have already seen that the most economical of these is 
ordinarily the round form, both because in such silos 
there is less wall space per cubic unit of capacity, and 
in case of wooden round silos, lighter material can be 
used in their construction. The only place where silos 
of square or rectangular form are built now is inside 
of barns, where they fit in better than a round struct- 
ure. We shall later on give directions for building 
silos inside of a barn, but shall now go over to a dis- 
cussion of the various forms of round silos that are apt 
to be met with. More round wooden silos have been 
built during late years in this country than of all other 
kinds of silos combined, and this type of silos, either 
built of uprights lined inside and outside with two 
layers of half-inch boards, or of one thickness of 



38 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

staves, will doubtless be the main silo type of the 
future ; hence we shall give full information as to 
their building, and shall then briefly speak of the 
other forms mentioned which may be considered pref- 
erable in exceptional cases. 

Round Wooden Silos. 

Round wooden silos were first described, and their 
use advocated, in Bulletin No. 28, issued by the Wis- 
consin Station in July, 1891, and hence have come to 
be known as ' 'Wisconsin Silos." The first detailed and 
illustrated description of this type of silos w^as pub- 
lished in this bulletin ; since that time it has been de- 
scribed in several bulletins and reports issued by the 
station mentioned, and in numerous publications from 
other experiment stations. All writers who have dis- 
cussed the question of silo construction agree that this 
form of silos is admirable, and the best that can be put 
up w^here a durable, first-class silo of a moderate cost 
is w^anted. This type, and the one to be described in 
the following, the stave silo, are practically the only 
kinds of wooden silos that have been built in this 
country during late 3'ears, except where unusual con- 
ditions have prevailed, that would make some other 
kind of silo structure preferable. 

The following description of the Wisconsin silo is 
from the pen of Prof. King, the originator of this 
type of silos, as published in bulletin No. 83 of the 
Wisconsin Station (dated May, 1900): 

The Foundatio7i. — There should be a good, substan- 
tial masonr}^ foundation for all forms of w^ood silos, 
and the w^oodwork should everywhere be at least 12 
inches above the earth, to prevent decay from damp- 
ness. There are few conditions where it will not be 
desirable to have the bottom of the silo 3 feet or more 
below the feeding floor of the stable, and this will re- 
quire not less than 4 to 6 feet of stone, brick, or con- 
crete wall. For a silo 30 feet deep the foundation wall 



II.LUSTRATION. 



39 




I I I I ' 1 I I I I I 
10 FEET. 



Fi^. I, Showing- method of placing all wood Silos on stone 
foundation, with pit dug out to increase depth. 



40 HOW TO BUILD A SllyO. 

of stone should be 1.5 to 2 feet thick. 

The inside of the foundation wall may be made 
flush with the woodwork above, or nearly so, as repre- 
sented in Fig. I , or the building ma}^ stand in the or- 
dinary way, flush with the outside of the stone wall, 
as represented in Fig. 2. In both cases the w^all 
should be finished sloping as shown in the drawings. 
. So far as the keeping of the silage is concerned it 
makes little difference which of these types of con- 
struction is adopted. The outward pressure on the 
silo wall is greater where the wall juts into the silo, 
but the wall is better protected against the weather. 
Where the projecting wall is outside, the silo has a 
greater capacity, but there is a strong tendency for 
the wall to crack and allow rain to penetrate it. Where 
this plan is followed it is important to finish the slop- 
ing surface with cement, or to shingle it, to keep out 
the water. 

Bottom of the Silo. — After the silo has been com- 
pleted the ground forming the bottom should be thor- 
oughly tamped so as to be solid, and then covered 
with two or three inches of good concrete made of i 
of cement to 3 or 4 of sand and gravel. The amount 
of silage which will spoil on a hard clay floor will not 
be large, but enough to pa}' a good interest on the 
money invested in the cement floor. If the bottom of 
the silo is in dry sand or gravel the cement bottom is 
imperative to shut out the soil air. 

Tying the Top of the Stone Wall. — In case the wood 
portion of the silo rises 24 or more feet above the 
stone work, and the diameter is more than 18 feet, it 
will be prudent to stay the top of the wall in some 
way. 

If the woodwork rises from the outer edge of the 
wall, then building the wall up with cement so as to 
cover the sill and lining as represented in Figs. 3 and 
4 will give the needed strength, because the woodwork 
will act as a hoop ; but if the silo stands at the inner 



ILLUSTRATION. 



41 




Fi^. 2. Showing an all-wood round silo on stone foundation. 
H represents a method of sawing boards for the conical roof. 



42 



HOW TO BVILD A SILO. 




1 «* 



Pig. 3. Showing method oj cotistriiction for ventilating the 
spaces between the studding in all-wood and lathed and 
plastered silos. 



THK STONE FOUNDATION, 



43 



face of the wall, it will be best to lay pieces of iron 
rod in the wall near the top to act as a hoop. 

Where the stone portion of the silo is high enough 
to need a door, it is best to leave enough wall between 
the top and the sill to allow a tie rod of iron to be 
bedded in this portion. So, too, the lower door in the 




Fig. 4, Showifig construction of all-wood silo, and connec- 
tion with wall, flush with outside. 



44 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



woodwork of the silo should have a full foot in width 
below it of lining and siding uncut to act as a hoop, 
where the pressure is strongest. 

Forming the Sill. — The sill in the all-wood silo may 
be made of a single 2x4 cut in 2-foot lengths, with 
the ends beveled so that the}- may be toenailed togeth- 
er to form circle (Fig. 5). 

Setting the Studding , — The studding of the all- 
wood round silo need not be larger than 2x4 unless 
the diameter is to exceed 30 feet, but they should be 
set as close together as one foot from center to center, 
as represented in Fig. 6. This nlmiber of studs is not 




'Fi^. 5. ShoiL'ini!; method of mafiing the sill of you fid ivood 
Silos. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SII.O. 



45 



required for strength but they are needed in order to 
bring the two layers of lining very close together, so 
as to press the paper closeh^ and prevent air from en- 
tering where the paper laps. 

Where studding longer than 20 feet are needed, 
short lengths may be lapped one foot and simply 
spiked together before they are set in place on the wall. 
This will be cheaper than to pay the higher price for 
long lengths. All studding should be given the exact 
length desired before putting them in place. 

To stay the studding a post should be set in the 




JFig. 6 Shoiuifiii' the plan of studding for (he all-ivood, brick- 
lined or lathed and plastei ed silo. 



46 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



ground in the center of the silo long enough to reach 
about 5 feet above the sill, and to this sta3^s may be 
nailed to hold in place the alternate studs until the 
lower 5 feet of outside sheeting has been put on. The 
studs should be set first at the angles formed in the 



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♦ 








• 


* 




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• 


• 


. 


* 




• 


• 


9 


• 


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t 


. 


• 


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, 




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e 


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e 


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P'i^. 7. Showing the construction of the door for the all-wood 
silo. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 47 

sill and carefully stayed and plumbed on the side to- 
ward the center. When a number of these have been 
set they should be tied together by bending a strip of 
half-inch sheeting around the outside as high up as a 
man can reach, taking care to plumb each stud on the 
side before nailing. When the alternate studs have 
been set in this wa}- the balance may be placed and 
toe-nailed to the sill and stayed to the rib, first plumb- 
ing them sideways and toward the center. 

Setting Studding for Doors. — On the side of the silo 
where the doors are to be placed the studding should 
be set double and the distance apart to give the de- 
sired width. A stud should be set between the two 
door studs as though no door were to be there, and 
the doors cut out at the places desired afterwards. 
The construction of the door is represented in Fig. 7. 

Silo Sheetijig and Siding. — The character of the 
siding and sheeting will vary considerably according 
to conditions, and the size of the silo. 

Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet 
inside and not much attention need be paid to frost, a 
single layer of beveled siding, rabbetted on the inside 
of the thick edge deep enough to receive the thin edge 
of the board below, will be all that is absolutely nec- 
essar}' on the outside for strength and protection 
against weather. This statement is made on the sup- 
position that the lining is made of two la^-ers of fenc- 
ing split in two, the three layers constituting the 
hoops. 

If the silo is larger than 18 feet inside diameter,, 
there should be a la3^er of half -inch sheeting outside, 
under the siding. 

If basswood is used for siding, care should be taken 
to paint it at once, otherwise it will warp badh- if it 
gets wet before painting. 

In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, car- 
rying the w^ork upward until staging is needed, fol- 
lowing this at once with the siding. Two 8-penny 



48 



HOW TO BUILD A SII.O. 



nails should be used in each board in every stud, and 
to prevent the walls from getting ' ' out of round ' ' 
the succeeding courses of boards should begin on 
the next stud, thus making the ends of the boards 
break joints. 

When the stagings are put up, new stays should be 
tacked to the studs above, taking care to plumb each 
one from side to side ; the siding itself will bring them 
into place and keep them plumb the other way, if care 
is taken to start new courses as described above. 

Forming the Plate. — When the last staging is up 




V'i^. 8. Shou'inr construction of conical roof of round silo, 
where rafters are not used. The outer cirele is the lower 
edge of the roof. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 49 

the plate should be formed by spiking 2x4' s cut in 
two-foot lengths, in the manner of sill, and as repre- 
sented in Fig. 8, down upon the tops of the studs, 
using two courses, making the second break joints 
with the first. 

The Lining of the Wooden Silo. — There are several 
ways of making a good lining for the all-wood round 
silo, but whichever method is adopted it must be kept 
in mind that there are two very important ends to be 
secured with a certainty. These are (i) a lining 
which shall be and remain strictly, air-tight, (2) a 
lining which will be reasonably permanent. 

All Wood Lining of ^- inch Flooring. — If one is wil- 
ling to permit a loss of 10 to 12 per cent, of the silage 
by heating, then a lining of tongued and grooved or- 
dinary 4-inch white pine flooring may be made in the 
manner represented in Fig. 9, where the flooring runs 
up and down. When this lumber is put on in the 
seasoned condition a single layer would make tighter 
walls than can be secured with the stave silo where the 
staves are neither beveled nor tongued and grooved. 

In the silos smaller than 18 feet inside diameter the 
two layers of boards outside will give the needed 
strength, but when the silo is larger than this and 
deep, there would be needed a layer of the split fenc- 
ing on the inside for strength ; -and if in addition to 
this there is added a layer of 3-pl3^ Giant P. and B. 
paper a lining of very superior quality would be thus 
secured. 

Lining of Hal finch Boards and Paper — Where 
paper is used to make the joints between boards air- 
tight, as represented in Fig. 4, it is extremely import- 
ant that a quality which will not decay, and which is 
both acid- and water-proof be used. A paper which 
is not acid- and water-proof will disintegrate at the 
joints in a very short time, and thus leave the lining 
very defective. 

The best paper for silo purposes with which we are 



50 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



acquainted is a 3 -pi}' Giant P. and B. brand manufac- 
tured by the Standard Paint Co., of Chicago and New 
York. It is thick, strong, and acid- and water-proof. 
A silo lining with two thicknesses of good fencing 




FJ^. 9. S/iOii'!fijr the construction of the all-wood round silo 
'iUhere the lining is made of ordinary four-inch flooring 
running up and down, and nailed to girts cut in hetiveeyi 
the studding every four feet. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 5 1 

having only small knots, and these thoroughly sound 
and not black, will make an excellent lining. Great 
care should be taken to have the two layers of boards 
break joints at their centers, and the paper should lap 
not less than 8 to 12 inches. 

The great danger with this t3'pe of lining will be 
that the boards may not press the two la3'ers of paper 
together close enough but that some air may rise 
between the two sheets where they overlap, and thus 
gain access to the silage. It would be an excellent 
precaution to take to tack down closely with small 
carpet tacks the edges of the paper where they over- 
lap, and if this is done a lap of 4 inches will be suffi- 
cient. 

The first layer of lining should be put on with 
8 -penny nails, two in each board and stud, and the 
second or inner layer with lo-penny nails, the funda- 
mental object being to draw the two laj-ers of boards 
as closely together as possible. 

Such a lining as this will be very durable because 
the paper will keep all the lumber dry except the inner 
layer of half -inch boards, and this will be kept wet by 
the paper and silage until empty, and then the small 
thickness of wood will dry too quickly to permit rot- 
ting to set in. 

A still more substantial lining of the same type 
may be secured by using two layers of paper between 
three layers of boards, as represented in Fig. 4, and 
if the climate is not extremely severe, or if the silo is 
only to be fed from in the summer; it would be better 
to do away with the layer of sheeting and paper out- 
side, putting on the inside, thus securing two layers 
of paper and three layers of boards for the lining with 
the equivalent of only 2 inches of lumber. 

The Silo Roof. 

The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several 
ways, but the simplest type of construction and the 



52 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

one requiring the least amount of material is that rep- 
resented in Figs. 7 and 8, and which is the cone. 

If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter 
no rafters need be used, and onl}^ a single circle like 
that in the center of Fig. 8, this is made of 2-inch 
stuff cut in sections in the form of a circle and two 
layers spiked together, breaking joints. 

The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the 
inner circle and to the plate, as shown in the drawing, 
the boards having been sawed diagonally as represent- 
ed at H, Fig. 2, making the wide and narrow ends the 
same relative widths as the circumferences of the out- 
er edge of the roof and of the inner circle. 

If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet 
it will be necessary to use two or three hoops accord- 
ing to diameter. When the diameter is greater than 
25 feet it wnll usually be best to use rafters and head- 
ers cut in for circles 4 feet apart to nail the roof boards 
to, which are cut as represented at H, Fig. 2. 

The conical roof may be covered with ordinary 
shingles, splitting those wider than 8 inches. By lay- 
ing the butts of the shingles }i to }{ of an inch apart 
it is not necessary to taper any of the shingles except 
a few courses near the peak of the roof. 

In laying the shingles to a true circle, and with the 
right exposure to the weather, a good method is to 
use a strip of wood as a radius which works on a cen- 
ter set at the peak of the roof and provided with a 
nail or pencil to make a mark on the shingle where 
the butts of the next course are to come. The radius 
may be bored with a series of holes the right distance 
apart to slip over the center pivot, or the nail may be 
drawn and reset as desired. Some carpenters file a 
notch in the shingling hatchet, and use this to bring 
the shingle to place. 

Ventilation of the Silo. 

Every silo which has a roof should be provided with 



VENTILATION OF THE SILO. 53 

ample ventilation to keep the under side of the roof 
dry, and in the case of wood silos, to prevent the walls 
and lining from rotting. One of the most serious mis- 
takes in the early construction of wood silos was the 
making of the walls with dead- air spaces, which, on 
account of dampness from the silage, lead to rapid 
"dry rot" of the lining. 

In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is im- 
portant to provide ample ventilation for the spaces 
between the studs, as well as for the roof and the in- 
side of the silo, and a good method of doing this is 
represented in Fig. 3, where the lower portion repre- 
sents the sill and the upper the plate of the silo. 
Between each pair of stucs where needed a i)4^-inch 
auger hole to admit air is bored through the siding 
and sheeting and covered with a piece of wire netting 
to keep out mice and rats. At the top of the silo on 
the inside the lining is only covered to within two 
inches of the plate and this space is covered with wire 
netting to prevent silage from being thrown over when 
filling. This arrangement permits dry air from out- 
side to enter at the bottom between each pair of studs 
and to pass up and into the silo, thus keeping the 
lining and studding dry and at the same time drying 
the under side of the roof and the inside of the lining 
as fast as exposed. In those cases where the sill is 
made of 2X4's cut in 2- foot lengths there will be space 
enough left between the curved edge of the siding and 
sheeting and the sill for air to enter so that no holes 
need be bored as described above and represented in 
Fig. 3. The openings at the plate should always be 
provided and the silo should have some sort of venti- 
lator in the roof. This ventilator may take the form 
of a cupola to serve for an ornament as well, or it may 
be a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to 24 inches in 
diameter, rising a foot or two through the peak of the 
roof. 



54 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Painting the Silo Joining. 

It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it will 
not become wholly or partly saturated with the silage 
juices. This being true, when the lining is again ex- 
posed when feeding the silage out, the paint greatly 
retards the drying of the wood work and the result is 
deca}^ sets in, favored by the prolonged dampness. 
For this reason it is best to leave a wood lining naked 
or to use some antiseptic which does not form a water- 
proof coat. 

The cost of such a silo as that described in the fore- 
going pages, is estimated by Prof. King at about 12.75 
cents per square foot of outside surface, when the lin- 
ing consists of two layers of half-inch split fencing, 
with a 3-ply Giant P. & B. paper between, and with 
one layer of split fencing outside, covered with rab- 
beted house siding. If built inside of the barn, with- 
out a roof and not painted, the cost would be reduced 
3 cents per square foot, or more. Silos of this type, 
30 feet deep, built outside, provided with a roof and 
including 6 feet of foundation, are stated to cost as 
follows: 13 feet inside diameter (80 tons capacity), 
$183.00; 15 feet diameter (105 tons capacity), $211.00; 
21 feet diameter (206 tons capacity;, $298.00; and 25 
feet diameter (300 tons capacity), $358.00. 

Complete specifications and building plans for a 300- 
ton silo, of the kind described in the preceding pages, 
are given in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage (Rand, Mc- 
Nally & Co., Chicago, publishers). The dimensions 
of this silo are : Diameter 26 feet, height 30 feet. 

According to our present knowledge this form of 
silo is most likely the best that can be built ; it is a 
somewhat complicated structure, calls for more time 
and skill for its construction, and costs more than 
other kinds of wooden circular silos, especially more 
than the stave silo soon to be described; but once 
built, it needs but little attention, and it is durable 



THE MODIFIED "WISCONSIN" SILO. 55 

and economical ; being practically air-tight, the losses 
of food materials in the siloed fodder are reduced to a 
minimum. 

Modifications of tfie Wisconsin Silo. 

Several modifications of the Wisconsin silo have 
been proposed and have given good satisfaction ; one 
is described by Prof. Plumb in Purdue Experiment 
Station Bulletin No. 91, as follows: 

The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half 
way up there are three layers of sheeting against the 
studs with tarred paper betwe-en. The upper half of 
the studs has but two layers of sheeting. The sheet- 
ing was made by taking 2x6-inch white pine planks 
and sawing to make four boards. The silo rests on a 
stone wall 18 inches deep and 16 inches wide. It is 
30 feet high, 18 feet 4 inches inside diameter, and 
holds about 150 tons. An inexpensive but durable 
roof was placed upon it. The cost of this structure is 
as follows : As the work was all done by the regular 
farm help at odd hours, the item of labor is given at 
estimated cost : Studding, $1303 : sheeting, $63.00 ; 
5 rolls paper, $6.25 ; nails, $2.40; cement for wall, 
$2.40; labor, $20.00; total, $107.08. The owner of 
the silo was so pleased with the service this one had 
rendered since its construction, that he built another 
like it during the summer of 1902. This silo is con- 
nected by a covered passage and chute with the feed- 
ing floor of the cattle barn. "» 

The construction of this type of silo calls for as 
much care in putting on sheeting, making doors and 
keeping out the air at these places and at the founda- 
tion, as is required with the more expensive form pre- 
viously described. The need for outer siding will 
depend in a large measure on circumstances. The 
farmer building the silo (living in Central Indiana ) 
has had no trouble with his silage freezing. In 
Northern Indiana the siding would naturally be more 



56 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



necessary than in the southern part of this state, but 
generally speaking, siding is not necessary, although 
it does materially add to the attractiveness of the silo. 

Plastered Round Wooden Silos. 

Plastered round wooden silos have met with favor 
among farmers who have tried them, and are preferred 
by many for either the original or the modified Wis- 
consin silo, on account of their ease of construction 
and their durability. In the experience of H. B. 
Gurler, a well known Illinois dairyman, who has built 
several silos on his farm in the course of the last dozen 
years, the walls of plastered silos keep perfectly and 










Jo«4- ^ =/-<»■• 



J^^*^' 9%' Elevation and section of plast^ered rqund wooden ,sitQf 



PLASTERKD ROUND WOODEN SILO. 



57 



there is no waste from moldy silage along the wall ; 
neither is there any difficulty about cracking of the 
plaster, if this is put on properly and a good quality 
of cement is used. Gurler described the construction 
of his plastered silo in a recent number of Breeder's 
Gazette, accompanying his description with building 
plans of his silo. We have reproduced the latter, 
changed and improved in some points of minor impor- 
tance, and give below a brief description of the method 
of building silos of this type. (See Figs. g% and lo.) 
The foundation may be made of stone, brick or 
cement, and is carried to the proper distance above 
ground. Sills composed of pieces of 2x4, two feet 
long, beveled at the ends so as to be toe-nailed togeth- 

, Ma/ Aoep, -^ er'/xnd"- .f-oV/w^- At> p^ f/vcK 
f Z'n-t'six/i /a" centfrs. 

,/«*/ Jsth S /.Intr /i "fhiCK 







3'-<>' Lonp 



Fig. lO. Foundation plan and section of plastered round 

wooden silo. 



58 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

er to form a circle of the same diameter as the interior 
diameter of the silo, are placed on the foundation 
bedded in asphalt or cement mortar, and on this the 
studding is erected, using two by fours, placed 15 or 
16 inches apart. Inside sheeting was secured by 
having 6 inch fencing re-sawed, making the material 
a little less than ^^ inch thick. On this was nailed 
laths made from the same material, the laths being 
made with beveled edges so that when nailed onto the 
sheeting horizontally, the same way as the sheeting is 
put on, there are dove-tailed joints between the laths, 
to receive the cement, preventing its loosening until it 
is broken. The patent grooved laths might be used, 
but they cannot be sprung to a twenty-foot circle. 
Better than either kind of wooden laths, however, is 
wire netting or metal lath of one form or another, 
such as is now generally used in outside plastering of 
houses, nailed on strips of ix2's which are placed 15 
inches apart, and nailed onto the studding through 
the sheeting. Metal lath will not take up moisture 
from the silage juices, and thus expand and possibly 
cause the plaster to crack, as would be likely to occur 
in case of wooden laths. For outside sheeting similar 
material as that used for inside sheeting may be used. 
If built inside of a barn or in a sheltered place, no 
outside sheeting would be required, although it would 
add greatly to the looks of the silo. Not being cer- 
tain that the inside sheeting, laths and cement offered 
sufficient resistance to the outward pressure in the 
silo, Mr. Gurler put on wooden hoops outside of the 
studding, of the same material as for the inside sheet- 
ing, putting it on double thickness and breaking joints. 
The silo described, which would hold 250-300 tons, 
cost $300, without a roof. Mr. Gurler considers this 
silo the best that can be built, and estimates that it 
will last for at least fifty years, if given a wash of 
cement every three years and if any cracks that may 
start be filled before the silo is filled again. 



H 
N 






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I 

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to 



3 

Si, 




6o HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Brick-I^ined Silos. 

As an illustration of silos of this type we give be- 
low a description of the silo built in connection with 
the Dairy Barn of the Wisconsin Experiment Station: 
the accompan 3' ing figures, ii and 12, will show the 
exterior appearance of the barn and silo, and a plan 
of the eastern half of the first floor of this barn. 

The silo is circular in form, 18 feet inside diameter 
and 33 feet deep. It is a frame structure lined inside 
and outside with brick. On 2x6 inch uprights, two 
wTappings of ^s inch stuff, 6 inches wide, are put, 
breaking joints, with no paper between. Brick is laid 
tight against this lining, and on the brick surface is a 
heavy coating of Portland cement (i part cement, 
I part sand). On the outside brick is laid up against 
the lining with a small open space between (about % 
inch). The silo is filled from the third floor of the 
barn, the loads of corn being hauled directly on to 
this floor over the trestle showm to the right in Fig. 
II, and there run through the feed cutter. When 
the silage is taken out for feeding, it falls through a 
box chute to the main floor where it is received into a 
truck (Fig. 30) in which it is conveyed to the man- 
gers of the animals. 

An illustration and description of the original 
round silo, with a capacity of 90 tons, built at the 
same Station in 1891 are given in Prof. Woll's Book 
on Silage, where descriptions and illustrations of a 
number of other first-class round wooden silos will 
also be found, like those constructed at the Experi- 
ment Stations in New Jersey, Missouri, and South 
Dakota. 

Stave Silos. 

The stave silo is the simplest type of separate silo 
buildings, and partly for this reason, partly on account 
of its cheapness of construction, more silos of this 



PLAN OF WIS. STA. DAIRY BARN, 



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62 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

kind have been built during the past few years than 
an}^ other silo type. 

Since their first introduction Stave Silos have been 
favorabl}^ mentioned by most writers on agricultural 
topics, as well as b}^ experiment station men. In a 
recent bulletin from Cornell Experiment Station, we 
find the stave silo spoken of as " the most practical 
and successful silo which can be constructed ' ' ; and 
the Ottawa Experiment Station is on record for the 
following statement in regard to the stave silo : ' ' From 
extensive observation and study of silos and silo con- 
struction, and from experience here with a number of 
different silos, it would appear that the stave silo is 
the form of cheap silos that for various reasons is most 
worthy of recommendation. It combines simplicity 
and cheapness of construction with the requisite con- 
ditions to preserve the silage in the ver}- best condition 
for feeding." 

Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large 
railroad or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfac- 
tory silos should be built as well as a No. i water 
tank. The first stave silos were built in this country 
in the beginning of the nineties ; the}' soon found 
some enthusiastic friends, while most people, includ- 
ing nearly all writers and lecturers on silo construc- 
tion, were inclined to be skeptical as to their practica- 
bility. It was objected that the staves would expand 
so as to burst the hoops when the silo was filled with 
green fodder ; that the}' would shrink after having 
been left empty during the summer months, so that 
the silo would fall to pieces, or at least so that it could 
not again be made air-tight ; and finalh', that the 
silage would freeze in such silos, and its feeding value 
thereb}- greath' lowered. In addition to this, it was 
claimed that a substantial stave silo would cost as 
much as a first-class ordinary all -wood silo of the same 
capacit5^ which would not have the objectionable 
features of the former. 



THE vSTAVE SILO 63 

111 Spite of these objections the stave silo has, how- 
ever, gradually gained ground, until of late years it 
has quite generally been adopted in preference to other 
kinds of silos, particularly in the Eastern and Central 
states. This being a fact, it follows that the objec- 
tions previously made to the stave silos, can not be 
valid, that the staves do not swell so as to burst the 
hoops, or shrink so as to cause the silo to fall to pieces, 
or become leaky. As regards the danger from freez- 
ing of the silage, the criticisms of the stave silo are 
in order, as silage in outdoor stave silos will be likely 
to freeze in cold weather, in any of the Northern 
states or Canada ; but, according to the testimony of 
farmers who have had experience with frozen silage, 
this is more an inconvenience than a loss. The freez- 
ing does not injure the feeding value of the silage, or 
its palatability. When the silage is thawed out it is 
as good as ever, and eaten b}^ cattle with a relish. 

Why Stave Silos have Become Numerous. 

The main reasons why stave silos have been pre- 
ferred by a majority of farmers during late years are 
that they can be put up 6fesily, quickly, and cheaply, 
and the expense for a small silo of this kind is com- 
paratively small. Many a farmer has built a stave 
silo who could not afford to build a high-priced silo, 
and others have preferred to build two small silos for 
one large one, or a small one in addition to an old, 
larger one that they may already have. Manufactur- 
ing firms have, furthermore, made a specialty of stave- 
silo construction, and pushed the sale of such silos 
through advertisements and neat circulars. Having 
made a special business of the building of stave silos, 
and having had several 3'ears' experience as to the re- 
quirements and precautions to be observed in building 
such silos, these firms furnish silos complete with all 
necessary- fixtures, that are greatly superior to any 



64 HOW To BUILD A SILO. 

which a farmer would be apt to build according to 
more or less incomplete directions. 

It follows that the stave silos sent out by manufact- 
uring firms will generally be more expensive than 
such as a farmer can build himself, because they are 
built better. It does not pay to build a poor silo, 
however, except to bridge over an emergency. Poor, 
cheap silos are a constant source of annoyance, expense 
and trouble, whether built square, rectangular or 
round. The cheap silos described in other places of 
this book have not been given for the purpose of en- 
couraging the building of such silos, but rather to 
show that if a farmer cannot afford to build a perma- 
nent, ^<?<?(/ silo, he. is not necessarily barred from the 
advantage of having silage for his stock, since a tem- 
porary silo may be built at a small cash outlay. 

We can therefore consistently recommend that par- 
ties intending to build stave silos patronize the manu- 
facturers who have made silo construction a special 
business. These firms furnish all necessary silo 
fittings, with complete directions for putting up the 
silos, and, if desired, also skilled help to superintend 
their building. Perhaps a large majority of the farm- 
ers of the country cannot, tiowever, patronize manu- 
facturers of stave silos because the expense of shipping 
the lumber and fixtures would be prohibitory. For 
the convenience of such parties and others who may 
prefer to build their own stave silos, directions for 
their construction are given in the following. The 
specifications for a loo-ton stave silo, printed below, 
which are taken from Woll's Book on Silage, were 
furnished by Claude & Starck, Architects, Madison, 
Wisconsin : 

Specifications for a lOO-ton Stave Silo. 

MASONRY. 

Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo 
to a depth of six inches ; excavate for foundation wall 



DOOR OF STAVE vSILO. 



65 



to a depth of 16 inches ; in this trench build wall 18 
inches wide and 20 inches high, of field stone laid in 
rich lime mortar. Level off top and plaster inside, 
outside and on top with cement mortar, i part cement 
to I part sand. Fill inside area with four inches of 
good gravel, thoroughly tamped down; after the wood 
work is in place coat this with one inch of cement 
mortar, i part cement to i part clean sand. Cement 
shall be smoothly finished, dished well to the center 




Fig. 13. Appearance of door in stave silo after being sawed 
out, arid side view in place. The opening is largest on the 
inside of silo. ( Clinton. ) 



66 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

and brought up at least 2 inches all around inside and 
outside walls. 

CARPENTRY. 

All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces, 
breaking joints, and made from clear, straight-grained 
cypress 2x6 inches, beveled on edges to an outside 
radius of 8 feet, mill-sized to the exact dimensions and 
dressed on all sides. There shall be three doors in 
the fifth, eighth and tenth spaces between hoops, made 
by cutting out from staves 28 inches long cut to a 45 
degree bevel sloping to the inside, (See Fig. 13.) 
The staves shall then be fastened together with two 
2X4-inch battens cut on inside to an 8-foot radius and 
bolted to each stave with two ^-inch diameter car- 
riage bolts with round head sunk on inside and nut on 
outside. The staves betw^een the doors shall be fast- 
ened together, top and bottom, with 34- inch diameter 
hardwood dowel pins, and abutting ends of staves 
shall be squared and toe-nailed together. 

Bottom Plates. — Bottom plates shall be made of 2x4 
inch pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 
10 inches radius outside. They shall be bedded in 
cement mortar and the staves shall then be set on the 
foundation and well spiked to these plates. 

Hoops. — Hoops shall be made from two pieces of 
f^-inch diameter round iron with upset ends, threaded 
8 inches, with nut and washer at each end ; as a -sup- 
port for the hoops a piece of 4x6-inch shall be substi- 
tuted for a stave on opposite sides and holes bored in 
it and the ends of hoops passed through these holes 
and tightened against the sides of the 4x6-inch. The 
hoops shall be twelve in number starting at the bottom 
6 inches apart and increasing in distance 6 inches 
between each hoop until a space of 3 feet 6 inches is 
reached ; from this point up this distance shall be 
preserved as near as possible to the top. 

Roof. — Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6-inch 



ROOF FOR STAVE SILO. 



67 



clear siding lapping joint, nailed to 2x4- inch rafters, 
2-feet centers, i-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2X4-inch 
plates. These plates to be supported on two 4X4-inch 
pieces resting on top of hoops. Three ix4-inch collar 
beams shall be spiked to end and middle rafters to tie 




Fig 14, A cheap roof of stave silo. [Clinton.) 

side of roof together. (See Fig. 11.) Fig. 14 shows 
another simple construction of roof on a stave silo. 

PAINTING 

The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall 
be painted two coats of good mineral paint; the entire 
inside surface of staves and doors shall be thoroughly 
coated with hot coal tar. 

Note. — Before filling silo, tar paper should be tacked 
tightly over doors and the entire inside of silo exam- 
ined and all cracks tightly caulked. 

The method of construction specified in the preced- 



68 HOW TO BUII.D A SILO. ^^^^^ 

ing may of course be modified iu many particulars, 
according to the conditions present in each case, cost 
of different kinds of lumber, maximum amount of 
money to be expended on silo, etc. 

The following directions for the construction of 
stave silos are taken from two bulletins on this sub- 
ject, published by the Cornell and Ottawa Experiment 
Stations. For a silo 20 feet in diameter, a circular 
trench 18 inches to two feet wide and with an outer 
diameter of 22 feet is dug about 2 feet deep, or below 
the frost line. The surface soil over the whole in- 
cluded area, and for 2 feet outside, is removed to a 
depth of 10 or 12 inches at the same time. The trench 
is then filled to the level of the interior with stone, 
well pounded down, the surface stone being broken 
quite small, and thin cement (i part of cement to 4 of 
sand thoroughly mixed) poured over, well worked in 
and left for a few days. This is followed by a coat of 
good cement (i part cement to 3 sand), care being 
taken w»hen finished to have the surface level and 
smooth. 

The silo is set up as shown in Fig. 15, which shows 
a cross-section of one method of construction. 

The posts (a, a, a, a) should be of 6x6 material and 
run the entire length of the silo. These should be 
first set up vertically and stayed securely in place. 

The scaffolding may be constructed by setting up 
2 by 4 scantling in the positions shown in Fig. 15, as 
d, d, h, b. Boards nailed from these 2 by 4 scantling 
and to the 6 by 6 posts will form a rigid framework, 
across which the planks for the scaffold platform may 
be laid. Before the scaffolding is ^11 in place the 
staves should be stood up within the inclosure ; other- 
wise difficulty will be experienced in getting them into 
position. 

It is probable that no better material can be obtain- 
ed for the staves than Southern cypress. This, how- 
ever, is so expensive in the North, as to preclude its 



MATKRIAI, FOR THK SILO. 



69 






t 1 

.-L-_X 










L..J, 



"^.v 



^^^/ 



F'ig. 15. Cross section of stave silo. The dotted lines show 
how scaffolding may be put up. 

use in most cases. Of the cheaper materials hemlock, 
white pine, and yellow pine, are usually the most 
available. At the present time hemlock is one of the 
cheapest satisfactory materials which can be purchas- 
ed, and it is probably as good as any of the cheaper 
materials. It should be sound and free from loose 
knots. 

If the silo is to have a diameter of 1 2 feet or less, 
the staves should be made of either 2 by 4 material, 
unbeveled on the edges and neither tongued nor 
grooved, or of 2 by 6 material beveled slightly on the 



70 HOW TO BUII.D A SILO. 

edges to make the staves conform to the circular shape 
of the silo. If the silo is to have a diameter of more 
than 12 feet, the staves should be of 2 by 6 material, 
and neither beveled nor tongued and grooved on the 
edges. The staves should be surfaced on the inside 
so that a smooth face may by presented which will 
facilitate the settling of the silage. The first stave set 
up should be made plumb, and should be toe-nailed at 
the top to one of the posts originally set. Immediate- 
ly a stave is set in place it should be toe-nailed at the 
top to the preceding stave set. It has been found that 
the work of setting up and preserving the circular 
outline may be materially aided by the use old barrel 
staves (see Fig. 16). For a silo 12 feet in diameter 
the curve in the stave of the sugar barrel is best 
adapted ; for a 16-foot silo the flour barrel stave is 
best, and for a silo 20 feet or more in diameter the 
stave of the cement barrel is best. If when the silo 
staves are put in place they are toe-nailed securely to 
the ones previously set ; if they are fastened firmly to 
the permanent upright posts (Fig. 15, a, a, a, a); if 
the barrel staves are used as directed above, the silo 
will have sufficient rigidity to stand until the hoops 
are put in place. However, if it becomes necessar}^ 
for an}' reason to delaj- for any considerable time the 
putting on of the hoops, boards should be nailed 
across the top of the silo. 

When it is found impossible to secure staves of the 
full length desired, a joint or splice must be made. 

For a silo 30 feet deep, staves 20 feet in length may 
be used. A part of these should be used their full 
length and part should be sawed through the middle, 
thus making staves of 20 and 10 feet length. In set- 
ting them up the ends w^hich meet at the splice should 
be squared and toe-nailed securel}- together. They 
should alternate so that first a long stave is at the bot- 
tom then a short one, thus breaking joints at 10 feet 
and 20 feet from the base. 



IRON HOOPS FOR SII.OS. 



71 




,.:N^ 




fi^iii il 






'ill! 



f? 




Fig, i6. Shozus hozu barrel slaves may be used in selling up 
a silo, Ihey should be removed before the silo is filled. 

For the hoops, f^-inch round iron or steel rods are 
recommended, although cheaper substitutes have been 
found satisfactory. Each hoop should be in three 
sections for a silo 12 feet in diameter, in four sections 
for a silo 16 feet in diameter. If the method of con- 
struction shown in Fig. 15 is followed, the hoops will 
need to be in four sections each, the ends being passed 
through the upright 6x6 posts, and secured by heavy 
washers and nuts. The bottom hoop should be about 
six inches from the base of the silo ; the second hoop 
should be not more than two feet from the first ; the 
the third hoop two and one-half feet from the second, 
the distance between hoops being increased by one- 
half foot until they are three and one-half feet apart, 
which distance should be maintained except for the 



72 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

hoops at the top of the silo which may be four feet 
apart. The hoops should be drawn fairly tight before 
the silo is filled, but not perfectly tight. They must 
be tight enough to close up the space between the 
staves, thus preventing any foreign matter from get- 
ting into the cracks which would prevent the staves 
from closing up as thej^ swell, and allowing air to en- 
ter. To hold hoops and staves in place during the 
summer when the silo is empty, staples should be 
driven over the hoops into the staves. If a sufficient 
number of staples are used they will prevent the sag- 
ging or dropping down of the hoops, and they will 
hold the staves securely in place. 

The hoops should be watched very closely for a few 
days after the silo is filled. If the strain becomes 
quite intense the nuts should be slightly loosened. If 
during the summer when the silo is empty and the 
staves thoroughly dry the hoops are tightened so that 
the staves are drawn closely together, when the silo is 
filled and the wood absorbs moisture and begins to 
swell, the hoops must be eased somewhat to allow for 
the expansion. 

The doors, 2 feet wide by 2j^ feet high, should be 
located where convenience in feeding dictates. The 
lower door should be between the second and third 
hoops at the bottom, and other doors will usually be 
needed in ever}^ second space between there and the 
top, except that no door will be needed in the top 
space, as the silage when settled will be sufficiently 
low to enable it to be taken out at the door in the 
space below. Plans should be made for the doors at 
the time the staves are set. When the place is reach- 
ed where it is desired to have the doors, a saw should 
be started in the edge of the stave at the points where 
the top and bottom of the doors are to come. The 
saw should be inserted so that the door can be sawed 
out on a bevel, making the opening larger on the in- 
side of the silo. (See Fig. 13.) This will enable 



A DOOR FOR STAVE SII.OS. 73 

the door to be removed and put in place only from the 
inside, and when set in place and pressed down with 
silage the harder the pressure the tighter will the 
door fit. After the silo is set up and the hoops have 
been put on and tightened the cutting out of the doors 
may be completed. Before doing this, cleats 2 inch- 
es by 3 inches and in length equal to the width of 
the door, should be made which will conform to the 
circular shape of the silo. One of these cleats should 
be securely bolted to the top and one to the bottom of 
where the door is to be cut. (See Fig. 13.) After 
the bolting, the door may be sawed out, and it is then 
ready for use. When set in place at time of filling the 
silo a piece of tarred paper inserted at the top and 
bottom will fill the opening made by the saw and pre- 
vent the entrance of any air around the door. 

Another Door for Stave Silo. 

Silage being heavy to handle, and pitch up, has 
made continuous doors a popular feature of a few 
factory-built silos, as it is much easier to get the silage 
out of the silo for feeding. The illustration, Fig. 17, 
shows a method of making a door in home-made silos 
which is continuous with the exception of a narrow 
brace piece extending across the opening, under each 
hoop, to giv^e rigidity to the structure. These pieces 
should be securely toe- nailed at each end to the staves. 
The jamb pieces, e, e, should be 2 inches thick, bev- 
eled off on the side away from the door, securely 
spiked to the inside of the stave, as shown, so as to 
leave a rabbet 2x2 inches. Great care should be taken 
to have these pieces exactly the same distance apart 
throughout their entire length, so that the door boards, 
being sawed the exact length, will fit alike and prop- 
erly all the way up, and if care be taken in this regard 
it will not be necessary to replace them in the same 
order at each successive filling of the silo. The door 
boards should be matched, two inches thick the same 



74 



HOW TO BUIIyD A SIIvO. 




^ 



StL\\^j( ^SvVd^^QP. 





Fig. ly. a, a, Staves, d, b. Door Boards, c, By-ace 2^/2 by 
6, set in, d, d, Hoops. <f, e.Jamb pieces. 



A CHEAP ROOF FOR STAVE SIEOS. 



75 



as the staves, and if surfaced and well seasoned there 
need be no fear of the silage spoiling around such a 
door. A strip of acid- and water- proof paper may be 
placed in the rabbet, between the ends of the door 
boards and the stave, as an extra precaution, but if 
the carpenter work is well done it is not absolutely 
necessary. 

Such a door can be adapted to any form of stave 
silo, and, if not made more than two feet wide, the 
fact that the door section is straight instead of curved 
will make no difference. 

If the silo is built outside of the barn some sort of 
a roof is desirable. This should be sufficiently wide 
to protect the walls of the silo as thoroughly as possi- 




-Fi^. i8. A cheap rooffo7- stave silos. 



HOW TO BUII.D A SILO. 



ble. A very satisfactory roof is shown in Fig. 14. 
Two other constructions of a cheap roof for a stave 
silo are shown in Figs. 18 and 19. The latter was 
built at the Indiana Experiment Station at a total cost 
of $10.50, viz., lumber $4.00, tin put on and painted 
$6.00 and hardware 50 cents. Two 2x6 pieces (A, A) 




Fig. 19. A CHEAP ROOF OF STA VE SILO. 
A, B, and E, 2x6 in.; O 2x4 in.; /?, C, Enlarged Outside 
End; F, Hinges; G, H, /, Sections of Roof ; J, K, 2x2 in. 
( Van Norman. ) 

were placed on edge and toe-nailed to the top of the 
staves they rested on ; the projection is for supporting 
the carrier at filling time. They are tied together by 
the short pieces E. The roof is in three sections, G, 
H, and I. G and H are hinged to the frame A, A, 



CHEAP STAVE SILOS. 77 

and may be tipped up when the silo is nearly full, to 
allow filling to the top. The narrow middle section 
is light enough to lift off on either side, and leaves 
the opening for the carrier to deliver into. 

On the framework B, B, and C, C. cheap sheeting 
boards are nailed. This is then covered with tin, sol- 
dered joints and painted. The sections should be fas- 
tened down by means of staples and hooks, or other 
device ; the hooks are used on this one. On the inner 
edge of G andH, 2x2-inch strips, K, are nailed. Close 
to these are placed similar strips, J, to which the cross- 
boards are nailed, forming the section I of the roof. 
The tin on the section I should come over the edge on 
to J. On the other sections it should run up on the 
side of K, making a water-tight joint. 

The sections G and H have slope of nearly 3 inches, 
being the difference in height of A and O. C is 
notched one inch at the outer end. (Van Norman.) 

Cheap Stave Silos. 

A foundation-, bottom-, and roofless stave silo was 
described recently in Hoard's Dairyman, which may 
prove of interest and value to some readers. It was 
put up on a leased farm, with the expectation of re- 
moving it on the termination of the lease. It has the 
sky for a roof, the ground for a bottom, and no foun- 
dation but a 2x6 spruce scantling to secure a level base 
for the wall, while protecting them from rotting on 
the ground. The silo has a diameter of 24 feet, and is 
as high as could be built from 2x4 scantling without 
splicing them. The 2x4 spruce scantlings were set 
18 inches apart from center to center, upon a 2x6 sill, 
directly upon the ground, It was sheeted on the in- 
side with two thicknesses of ^x6 spruce, with tar 
paper between. On the outside, at the bottom, half 
way up, and at the top, were two, three, and two 
bands of 1x6 common fencing, respectively, and no 
other boarding. The silo has a capacity of 250 tons, 



78 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

and was built at a cost of $174.21. " We never had 
better silage than we are now feeding out of this silo, 
though we did have to shovel nearly a foot off of it 
a few days ago, when the silo was opened. 

Another very simple, home-made stave silo was 
built b}^ the Virginia Experiment Station on a trial. 
The following is a brief description of this silo. It 
will be noted that neither doors nor roof were provided 
for in the silo. 

A circle 16 feet in diameter is marked on the ground 
and covered with short pieces of plank. Four pieces 
of plank 16 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 2 inches 
thick are then set on end on the circle at equal inter- 
vals. These are held in an upright position b}^ braces 
in various directions. An iron band is placed about i 
foot from the bottom of the silo, and held in position 
by nails driven into the plank and bent up and over 
the band. A second band is placed about i foot from 
the top. The rest of the staves are then set in place, 
a nail being driven into each to support the bands. The 
latter are then tightened somewhat and 3 more put 
on, the distance between the bands being about 4 feet. 
Instead of hoops of round iron ordinarily used, bands 
made as follows are recommended : 

Procure (as can usually be done) partially worn tire 
iron from heavy wagons. Get a smith to rivet, not 
weld, these together so that two bands will go around 
the silo. Rivet to the ends of these bands short pieces 
of iron one-half inch thick by 2 inches wide. Turn 
up 3 inches of this thick iron and punch three-fourth 
holes in the turned-up portion. For each band pro- 
cure 2 bolts a foot long and three-fourth inch in diam- 
eter. Have threads cut on bolts nearly the entire 
length, and place these bolts through the holes in up- 
turned ends ; put on nuts and tighten the silo. These 
are stronger, cheaper, and easier to work than the 
round bands, and considered a great improvement over 
the latter. Objections have, however, been raised to 



MODIFICATION OF THE STAVE SILO. 79 

flat iron hoops, that the woodwork under them is apt 
to rot, and round hoops are generally recommended 
for this reason. 

A Modification of the Stave Silo. 

Stave silos are admittedly cheap and readily put up, 
but unless hoops are tightened as they dry out, they 
may be easily blown into a shapeless mass in case of a 
heavy gale. The modification of the stave silo de- 
scribed in the following has the advantage of being 
more rigid and substantial ; it has been put up in a 
number of places in the east, and has apparently given 
good satisfaction for several years, at least. In build- 
ing this silo some good, tough, oak planks two inches 
thick and of any convenient length are procured. 
Rock elm will do, although not as good as oak. The 
planks are sawed into strips half an inch thick. The 
foundation of the silo is made of concrete, and a little 
larger than the outside diameter of the silo. A stake 
is set in the center and on this a piece is nailed, just 
long enough to act as a guide in setting scantling 
when erecting sides. For sides 1^x4 inch hemlock 
of any desired length is used. These are set up on 
the circumference of the silo, perpendicular to the 
bottom. 3 feet and 7 feet up nail on the outside one 
of the half-inch strips mentioned before, being sure to 
keep the circle regular. This will keep upright pieces 
in place until the circle is completed. On each hoop so 
started other half -inch pieces are nailed, lapping them 
in different places until each hoop is three inches thick. 
Other hoops are now put on in the same manner, plac- 
ing them one foot apart at bottom, up to the three- 
foot hoop 16 inches apart from three to the 7-foot hoop, 
then increasing the distance between each hoop two in- 
ches, until they are 30 inches apart, at which distance 
they should be kept. If staves are to be spliced it should 
be done on the hoop. When this is done, a silo will 



8o HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

be made of 1%^^ inch, thoroughly hooped with 
wooden hoops 2x3 inches. 

The inside may be covered with the best quaUty of 
felt, well tacked to the staves, on which a thick coat 
of thick coal tar is spread ; over this another thick- 
ness of felt is put while the tar coating is still green. 
The silo is lined with ^-inch Georgia pine ceiling, 
nailing thoroughl}', and the lining coated with two 
coats of coal tar, putting on the first one quite thin, 
but using all the wood will take in, and for a second 
coat tar as thick as it can be spread. Give plenty of 
time to dr}^ before filling. 

The outside of the silo may be boarded up with 
vertical boarding, or it may have strips nailed on 
hoops and be boarded with novelty vSiding. The latter 
method will make a stronger and better looking silo. 
If the hoops are well nailed ,to the staves when being 
made, we shall have a silo in which it is impossible 
for the staves to shrink or get loose. (Woodward.) 

Peer, in his book " Soiling, Soiling crops and Ensi- 
lage," reports that a New- York canning factory who 
has for years siloed their pea vines, corn husks and 
cobs, and wintered sheep thereon, put the refuse 
through a cutting box into a rough plank silo about 
thirty feet in diameter. "The planks were rough, 
just as they came from the saw mill, set on end, and 
liooped with half -inch round iron. No roof was put 
on, and when the silage settled the staves were taken 
down, the silage stood, and the whole mass kept in 
perfect form. The following year the staves (2x6 inch 
planks) are set up again. As to the silage spoiling, 
there is six or eight inches on the sides that rots, and 
is throw^n into the manure heap. As to freezing, they 
experience no inconvenience from that. If the top 
freezes a little, it is mixed with the unfrozen, fermen- 
tation sets up, and the frozen part is thawed out by its 
own combustion." 

Protection agaijist freezing. It the silo is built out- 



TABLE OF AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES. 8 1 

doors in any of the Northern states, it is necessary to 
provide some special means to keep the silage from 
freezing in case this is considered a very objectionable 
feature. The silo may be enclosed by a wide jacket of 
rough boards nailed to four uprights, leaving the sec- 
tion of the silo where the doors are eas}^ of access ; the 
space between the silo and outside jacket is filled with 
straw in the fall ; this may be taken out and used for 
bedding in the spring, thus allowing the staves to be 
thoroughly dried out during the summer, and prevent- 
ing the silo from rotting. 

Number of staves reqjiired for stave silos. — The fol- 
lowing table will be found useful in calculating the 
number of staves required for silos of different diame- 
ters, and the feeding areas which these will give : 



Circumferences and Areas op Circi^es. 



Diameter, 
Feet. 


Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 


Area, 

Sqnare 

Feet. 


Diameter, 
Feet. 

2L 


Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 

60.0 


Area, 

Square 

Feet. 


8 


25.1 


50.3 


346.4 


9 . 


28.3 


63.6 


22 


69.1 


380.1 


10 


31.4 


78.5 


23 


72.3 


415.5 


11 


34.6 


95.0 


24 


65.4 


452.4 


12 


37.7 


113.1 


25 


78.5 


490.9 


13 


40.8 


132.7 


2(. 


81.7 


530.9 


14 


44.0 


153.9 


27 


84.8 


572.6 


15 


47.1 


179.7 


2S 


88.0 


615.8 


10 


50.3 


201.1 


29 


91.1 


660.5 


17 


53.4 


227.0 


3.1 


94.2 


706.9 


IS 


56.5 


254.5 




97.4 


754. H 


19 


59.7 


283.5 


32 


100.5 


804.2: 


2U 


62.8 


314.2 









To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the 
diameter b}- 3 . 1 4 1 6 . 

To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of 
the diameter by 0.7854. 

To find the cubical contents of a cylinder, multiply 
the area of the base (floor) by the height. 

Example. — A silo 16 feet in diameter and 26 feet 
high is wanted ; how maiiA' staves 2x6* inches will be 



82 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

needed, and what will be the feeding area in the silo, 
and its capacity ? 

The circumference of a circle i6 feet diameter -f 
50.3 feet ; there will therefore be required 50.3-^ ^ s 
1 01 staves, 2x6 inches, 26 feet high, or if staves of 
this height cannot be obtained, 135 staves 20 feet long, 
or 50 each of 12 and 14 feet long staves. The feeding 
area will be 16X 16X0.7854— 201. i square feet, and 
the cubical content of the silo, 201.1X26-5228.6 cu- 
bic feet. Estimating the weight of a cubic foot of 
corn silage at 40 pounds, 5228.6 cubic feet silage 
would weigh 209,164 pounds, or about 100 tons, which 
is the approximate capacity of a round silo of the di- 
mensions given. 

Connecting Round Silos with Barn. — The location 
of the silo with reference to other farm buildings has 
already been discussed. The silo must be easy to get 
at from the stable, and the silage, if possible, handled 
only once in being placed before the stock. A round 
silo is most conveniently built just outside of the barn 
and connected with this by means of a covered pass- 
age wa}'. The method of joining silos to barns is il- 
lustrated in numerous pictures of silos given in this 
book. See Fig. 20. 

Other forms of Round Silos. 

The various tj'pes of round, wooden silos have been 
described at some length in the preceding, because 
perhaps ninety per cent, of farmers who expect to 
build a silo will build one of this kind, either one of 
the more substantial and expensive original or modi- 
fied Wisconsin silos, or a stave silo. In some cases 
it seems more desirable to build a round silo of other 
material than wood, viz., of either stone or brick. 
The general principles that must be observed in con- 
structing silos of these materials are similar to those 
underlying the proper construction of wooden silos. 
In order to strengthen the wall of the silo, it is re- 



IIvLUSTRATlON. 



83 



s 

p 






5: ^ 



i '}At> 







84 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



^ 



commended to bed in the wall between the doors f^ 
inch iron rods, bent to the curve of the silo circle, and 
about 12 feet long. The two ends should be turned 
short at right angles, so as to anchor better in the 
mortar. In deep stone silos, which rise more than i8 
feet above the surface of the ground, it will be safest 
to strengthen the wall between the two lower doors 
with iron tie rods, and, if such a silo is built of bould- 
ers, it will be well to use rods enough to make a com- 
plete Hne or hoop around the silo about two feet above 
the ground, as represented in Fig. 21. 




Fig. 21. Showing- metJwd of bedding iron rods in stone, 
brick, or coficrete walls to increase the streiigth. 

Too great care cannot be taken in making the part 
of the wall below and near the ground solid, and es- 



BRICK SILOS. 85 

pecially its outer face, so that it will be strong where 
the greatest strain will come. It is best also to dig 
the pit for the silo large enough so as to have plenty 
of room outside of the finished wall to permit the 
earth filled in behind to be very thoroughly tamped, 
so as to act as a strong backing for the wall. This is 
urged because a large per cent, of the stone founda- 
tions of wood silos have cracked more or less from one 
cause or another, and these cracks lead to the spoiling 
of silage. 

Flat quarry rock, like limestone, will make the 
strongest silo wall, because they bond much better 
than boulders do, and when built of limestone they 
will not need to be reinforced much with iron rods. 
It wili be best even in this case, however, to use the 
iron tie rods between the lower two doors. (King.) 

Brick Silos. — In constructing a brick silo it will be 
well to guard the following points : Make the foun- 
dation of stone if practicable, and let the first course 
of brick come flush on the inside with the stone work. 
Bed a five-eighths inch iron hoop in the stone work 
in the upper part before laying the brick, in order to 
keep the pressure of brick from spreading the wall 
before the mortar becomes set and hard. Make a two- 
inch air space in the walls up to within one-third of 
the top. This will make a 14 inch wall of three 
courses of brick. If, however, the silo is to be over 
24 feet inside diameter, then a four-brick wall is really 
necessary one-third the way up, then the next third 
of three bricks and the last third of two bricks. The 
air space should be in the outer part of the wall. Iron 
tie rods should also be laid around in the wall between 
the doors, as recommended in the stone work. It is 
also important that the brick should be wet when laid, 
otherwise the mortar in which they are laid will be 
dried out too rapidly. The walls should be plastered 
over very smoothly with a coat of rich cement, one- 
fourth to one-half inch thick, and then every two or 



86 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

three years this should be well whitewashed with thin 
cement, to keep the wall protected from the effects of 
acid in the silage. King recommends that the floor 
jambs be made of 3x6's or 3x8's, rabbetted two in- 
ches deep to receive the door on the inside. The cen- 
ter of the jambs outside should be grooved and a 
tongue inserted projecting three-fourths of an inch 
outward to set back into the mortar, and thus secure 
a thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb. 
The doors may be made of two layers of matched 
flooring wuth tarred paper between, and lag screw 
bolted to the jamb, so as to give a perfectly smooth 
face next to the silage. 

Stone Silos. — The stone silo should have a wall about 
two feet thick below the surface of the ground, and 
this may be laid in the cheaper grades of cement. 
Above the surface a good grade of Portland cement 
should be used. A thickness of wall of i8 inches at 
the surface of the ground is desirable, but this may 
be gradually reduced to 12 inches at the top, keeping 
the inner surface of the silo perpendicular. It is im- 
portant to have five-eighths inch iron rods, with an- 
gles on the ends, laid in the wall at intervals between 
each door, to keep the walls from cracking or spread- 
ing before the mortar or cement is thoroughly set. 
These rods may be of several lengths, laid to the 
curve of the wall, and the angled ends should lap by 
each other for three or four inches. 

It will be well to place silos a distance below the 
surface. This should not be deep enough on level 
land, however, to require great exertion to get out 
the silage. Under such circustances four feet is deep 
enough. (Plumb.) 

Details concerning the construction of stone, brick, 
and cement silos are given in Prof. Woll's Book on 
Silage, and in Bulletin No, 83 of Wisconsin Experi- 
ment Station, by Prof. King, as well as in numerous 
other silo pamphlets, and we shall not take up fur- 



SIIvOS IN THE BARN. 87 

ther space here with the discussioji thereof. The 
same holds true with all other forms of silo construc- 
tion than those already explained, except the one 
kind, where silos are built in a ba}^ of the barn. In 
order to use the space economically, these silos are 
built in a rectangular form. 

Silos in the Barn. 

A large number of silos have been built in the barn, 
especially in the early days of silo construction. 
Where the necessary depth can be obtained and where 
the room can be spared, such silos can be built very 
easily and at a less cost than a separate structure, 
since lighter materials in construction may be used in 
this case, and no roof will be required for the silo. 
Silos built in this manner have generally the advant- 
age of being near at hand. Since feeding time comes 
twice a day, at least, throughout the winter and 
spring, a few steps saved in hauling the silage mean 
a good deal in the aggregate. Many farmers first 
made silos of this kind, and, later on, when familiar 
with the silage and siloing process, built additional 
separate structures. 

A very cheap rectangular silo may be constructed 
by erecting strong 3x10 studding around a bay or part 
of a bay, and lining wnth one-ply good matched lum- 
ber one inch thick. Such a silo has been in use at the 
Ottawa Station for eight years, and has given good 
results. The following detailed directions for chang- 
ing bays in a barn into silos were originally published 
by the N. H. Experiment Station. 

Remove floors, and if there is a barn cellar place 
sills on the bottom of this, and set 2x8 scantling ver- 
tically, bringing up the inside edges even with the sills 
of the barn. The bottom may or may not be cement- 
ed, according as the ground is wet or dry. If it be 
cemented, three casks of cement and an equal amount 
of sharp sand or gravel will cover a bottom 16x16 and 



88 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

turn up on the sides two feet, which wall give a tight 
silo. Common spruce or hemlock boards, square- 
edged and planed on one side, are best for boarding the 
inside of the silo ; these are to be put on in two 
courses, breaking joints, and, if thoroughly nailed, 
will give a tight silo. No tongueing or matching is 
needed. Tarred paper may be put between the board- 
ing, if desired, but I doubt if it is of great utility. 
At some point most easily accessible, an opening ex- 
tending nearly the height of the silo must be made, 
to put in the corn and take out the silage. The 
courses of boards should be cut shorter than the open- 
ing, to allow loose boards to be set in, lapping on the 
door studding and making an air-tight joint. For all 
this work medium lumber is good enough, and a very 
limited amount of mechanical skill and a few tools, 
which all farms should have, will enable most farmers 
to build their own silo. A few iron rods, one-half 
inch in diameter, may be necessary to prevent spread- 
ing b}^ side pressure, but this will depend upon the 
strength of the original frame of the barn. Narrow 
boards, from five to eight inches wide, are better than 
wide ones, as they are not likely to swell and split. 
Eight-penny nails for the first boarding and twelve- 
penny nails for the second course will hold the boards 
in place. 

A silo constructed as above outlined will cost from 
50 cents to $1.00 for each ton of 'its capacity, accord- 
ing as all materfals, including lumber and stone, are 
charged, or only labor and nails, rods, and cement. 

A Small $jo Silo. — The illustration herewith given. 
Fig. 22, shows a small, square silo, built inside a 
Michigan barn ; dimensions 8 feet square and 22 feet 
deep. The capacity of the silo is about 28 tons. It 
is built of 2x8 horizontal studding, placed lapped at 
the corners, and held together with 5 twenty-penny 
nails, wire spikes, in each corner. The space be- 



A THIRTY-DOLLAR SILO. 



89 




Fig. 22. View of a silo Sfeet square; 22 Jeet deep, built 
inside of barn. ( Smith. ) 

tween these frames, from the bottom to the top, are 
2>^, 2^2 3, 4, 5, and 5 feet. The siding consists of 
one thickness of matched white-pine flooring, six 
inches wide ; it is nailed on vertically and painted on 
both sides with Venetian red and oil. No paper is 
used. The corners are filled out by 2x6 scantling 
properly beveled and nailed in vertically. Each door 
is 2 feet wide, and made of sufficient length to lap an 
inch when placed between a certain pair of horizontal 
ribs ; toward the bottom of the silo the doors are, 
therefore, 2>^ feet high, while toward the top they 
are 5 feet high. Battens of 1x4 pine are placed over 
the cracks on the sides of the doors and nailed to the 
wall of the silo. No hinges are used, the pressure of 
the silage keeping the doors in place. 

The bottom frame, formed by the 2x8 studdings, 



90 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



rests on the clay bottom of the barn cellar. The silo 
has no foundation, but the hard clay bottom is cement- 
ed with Buffalo cement, one inch thick, to keep out 
rats. Cost of materials, $30.00. 

The main objection to rectangular or square silos is 
that it is very difficult to make the corners perfectly 
tight, so that air will not enter at these points and 
cause more or less of the silage to spoil here. Even 
if carefully built, the lateral pressure in a silo filled 
with green fodder is often great enough to cause the 
boards to spring and thus let air in, unless special pre- 
cautions have been taken to prevent it. One way of 
avoiding this difficulty is to partially round off the 
corners, by placing a square timber, split diagonally, 
in each of the corners. Another plan is to bevel the 
edge of a ten-inch plank and nail it in the corners, 
filling in behind with dry dirt or sand. Sawdust has 
been recommended, but should not be used, as it will 
draw moisture and cause the plank and silo lining to 
decay. The space back of the plank may also be left 
empty. 

The arrangement for making the corners of a square 
or rectangular silo air-tight shown in Fig. 23 was pub- 
lished by the Geneva Experiment Station. The cor- 




Fig. 23. Corner of Rectangular Silo. Wheeler. 



OCTAGONAL SILOS. 



91 



ners are boarded up, as shown in the figure, a sheeting 
of paper going between the two courses of boards. 
The partitions at the corners can be put across after 
the first course of boards, instead of after the lining 
is in place, as shown in the illustration. 

The silos of the form mentioned may be strengthen- 
ed at the corners by the arrangement recommended by 
Prof. Spillman and shown in Fig. 24. Half-inch 




/6c 

I 



1^1^. 24. Cross-sedioji of tJit studding at the corner of a 
rectangular silo. Spillman. 

bolts are used to hold the 2x4 and 2x6 together. The 
bolts are not more than eighteen inches apart from the 
bottom up to about the middle of the studding. 
Above the middle they may be two feet apart ; they 
may be reinforced by 3od. nails. 

Octagonal Silos. 

A number of octagonal silos have built in recent 
years, and find favor with their owners in most in- 
stances. If properly put up and care taken to fasten 
the girts securely at the corners with plenty of spikes, 
the octagonal silo is greatly superior to the square 



92 



HOW TO BUII.D A SILO. 



type and has nearly every advantage of the round si- 
lo, and can readily be constructed by anyone handy 
with tools with the assistance of the ordinary farm 
help. 

The foundation should be of stone or brick as de- 
scribed for various other forms of silos, and should be 
laid out with proper dimensions for the size decided 
upon. Brief details are here given for an octagonal 
silo of about the same capacity as a round silo, 20 feet 
in diameter and of equal height. 

If the foundation is laid out so that the corners are 
in the circumference of a circle 21 feet in diameter the 
horizontal girts will be about 8 feet long, and will be 
much stronger and better able to withstand the lateral 
pressure than the sides of a square silo of equal capac- 




JEi^. 25. Perspective showing construction of Frame, and 

double lining with paper between. The door is 7nade of 

two thicknesses with paper between, as shown. 



OCTAGONAL SILOS. 93 

ity. Details of construction are shown in the drawings, 
Figs. 25 and 26. The girts should be 3x8 in. and spiked 
at the corners with 6 inch spikes, up to nearly one-half 
of the height of the silo, and 2x8 in. the rest of the 
way, fastened with 20 penny spikes. The girts should 
be 16 inches apart at the bottom for one-third the 
height of the silo. They may be 18 inches apart the 
second third of the distance, and above that the dis- 
tance between them can be increased till they are 2 
feet or more at the very top. A double row^ may be 
used for a plate. Sound timber only should be used. 
Care should be taken to have the girts securely spiked 
at the corners, so that the joints will not give. The 
horizontal girt sections take the place of hoops in the 
round silo and must be strong. Not less than six or 
eight spikes should be used at each splice. One of 
the causes of failure in home-made silos of every kind 
is that the ordinary carpenter, who has probably never 
built a silo before, has but a limited idea of the pres- 
sure on the sides of a silo 30 or more feet deep, and 
does not realize the disappointment and loss occasioned 
by a poorly built silo. 

A simple method of getting the walls perpendicular 
is to first lay the sill, which should be fastened to the 
wall securely, by means of bolts set in the wall, and 
then erect at each corner and on the inside a temporary 
post or scantling to serve as a guide, braced in position 
so that it is perpendicular both ways, and the girts 
then laid and spiked in position, one above the other. 

The lining is, of course, put on up and down and 
should be matched and of good thickness, say 134^ or 
i^ if but one layer is used. If two layers, it need 
not be so thick, _^-inch flooring, and the outer layer 
not necessarily matched. The corners should be fitted 
as nicely as possible, and it is a good plan to block 
out the corners, as shown at Fig. 26, a, a, a, so that 
the tongues and grooves can be properly adjusted to 
each other. 



94 



HOW TO BUII.D A SILO. 



John Gould, a prominent dair}- writer and lecturer, 
recommends, where one thickness of matched lumber 




Fi^. 26. Shoct'ifig method of laying sill, and bolting same 
to foundation for an octagonal silo. 

is used in the above manner, that the lining be thor- 
oughly coated on the outside with heavy application 
of coal tar, or other similar substance, so as to prevent 
the air penetrating the pores of the lumber, and 
causing the silage to dry on to the inner surface. 

Any style of door can be used, but an effective con- 
tinuous door is shown in the illustration. If any of the 
girts be cut out to make the door spaces larger, the 
remaining ones should be correspondinglj- reinforced. 

The making of a roof for such a silo is a simple 
matter, and a dormer window will assist in filling, .al- 
though a trap door ma}^ be used in case the filling be 
done with a blower. Any style of siding maybe used. 

Such a silo if well built will be durable, satisfactory, 
have nearly all the advantages of a round silo, and in 



COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 



95 



addition will be a much more stable structure, requir- 
ing no tightening of the hoops from time to time. 

Bill of materials for a silo built to 21 -foot circle and 
30 feet high are given below. The cost wall, of course, 
vary with the locality. 

Bill of materials for Octagonal Silo 20x30 feet out- 
side measurement : 

Foundation 10 perches. 

Girts iioo feet 3x8 ] 8 or 16 foot 

900 " 2x8 j lengths. 

Rafters 230 feet 2x4x14 feet 

Siding 2500 feet 

Lining 2800 feet, 1 3^ inch thick, matched 

Dormer Window 

Nails and spikes 300 lbs 

Shingles 4 M 

Paint 6 gallons 

Cost of Different Kinds of Silos. 

The cost of a silo wall depend on local conditions as 
to price of labor and materials ; how much labor has 
to be paid for ; the size of the silo, etc. The compar- 
ative data for the cost of tvv^o round silos, 13 and 25 
feet in diameter, and 30 feet deep, is given by Prof. 
King, as shown in the following table : 



Kinds of Silo. 


13 Fbkt Inside 
Diameter. 


25 Feet Inside 
Diameter. 




Without 
roof. 


With 
roof. 


Without 
roof. 


With 
roof. 


Stone Silo, 


S151 
243 
142 
131 
133 
168 
128 
127 
101 


SI 75 
273 
230 
190 
185 
185 
222 
183 
144 


S264 
437 
310 
239 
244 
308 
235 
136 
195 


$328 


Brick Silo 


494 


Brick-lined Silo, 4 inches thick . . 

Brick lined, 2 inches thick 

Lathed and plastered Silo 

Wood Silo with g-alvanized iron.. 

Wood Silo with paper 

Stave Silo 


442 
369 
363 
432 
358 
289 


Cheapest wood Silo 


240 







96 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

During the spring of 1895 Prof. WoU made inqui- 
ries in regard to the cost of silos of different kinds 
(not only circular ones) , built b}' farmers in different 
states in the Union. The results of this inquiry are 
summarized briefly below. 

The cheapest silos are those built in bays of barns, 
as would be expected, since roof and outside lining are 
here already at hand. Number of silos included, 
fourteen ; ayerage capacit}^ 140 tons ; ayerage cost of 
silos, $92, or 65 cents per ton capacity. 

Next come the square or rectangular wooden silos. 
Number of silos included, twent3-fiye ; average capa- 
city, 194 tons; ayerage cost of silos, $285, or:^i.46 
per ton capacity. 

The round silos follow closely the square wooden 
ones in point of cost. Onh'seyen silos were included, 
all but one of which were made of wood. Ayerage 
capacity, 237 tons; average cost $368, or $1.54 per 
ton capacity. The data for the six round wooden 
silos are as follows ; Ayerage capacit}-, 228 tons ; aver- 
age cost, $346, or $1.52 per ton capacity. The one 
round cement silo cost $500, and had a capacity of 
300 tons (dimensions: diameter, 30 feet; depth 21 
feet); cost per ton capacity, $1.67. 

The stone or cement silos are the most expensive in 
first cost, as is shown by the data obtained. Number 
of silos included, nine ; average capacit}', 288 tons ; 
ayerage cost, $577, or $1.93 per ton capacity. 

The great difference in the- cost of different silos of 
the same kind is apparent without much reflection. 
The range in cost per ton capacity in the 25 square 
wooden silos included in the preceding summar}^ was 
from 70 cents to $3.60. The former figure was ob- 
tained with a 144-ton silo, 20x18x20 feet; and the 
latter with a 140-ton silo, built as follows : Dimen- 
sions, 14x28x18 feet; 2x12x18 feet studdings, set 12 
inches apart ; two thicknesses of dimension boards in- 
side, with paper between, sheeting outside with paper 



COMPARATIVE COST OF SII.OS. 97 

nailed on studding ; cement floor. Particulars are 
lacking as regards the construction of the first silo, 
beyond its dimensions. 

It may be in order to state, in comparing the aver- 
age data for the cost of the different silo types, that 
the round silos were uniformly built better than the 
rectangular wooden silos included, and according to 
modern requirements, while many of the latter were 
old and of comparatively cheap construction, so that 
the figures cannot be taken to represent the relative 
value of rectangular and round silos built equally 
well. 

A good many figures entering into the preceding 
summaries are doubtless somewhat too low, if all labor 
put on the silo is to be paid for, for in some cases the 
■cost of work done by the farmers themselves was not 
figured in with other expenses. As most farmers 
would do some of the work themselves, the figures giv- 
en may, however, be taken to represent the cash outlay 
in building silos. In a general way, it may be said 
that a silo can be built in the bay of a barn for less 
than 75 cents per ton capacity ; a round or a good 
square or rectangular wooden silo for about $1.50, aitd 
a stone or cement silo for about $2 per ton capacity, 
all figures being subject to variations according to lo- 
cal prices of labor and materials. 

Rennie, a Canadian writer, gives the following com- 
parative figures as to cost of silos ; Round stave silos, 
75 cents per ton capacity ; round wooden silos, $1.25 
and cement silos, $1.25 to $1.50 per ton capacity. 

The cost of stave silos will of course vary with the 
kind of lumber used, cost of labor, and other expenses, 
as in case of other types of silos. It is evident that 
stave silos can as a rule be built cheaper than other 
kinds of silos, both from the fact that less material is 
used in their construction, and because the labor bill 
is smaller. One of the first stave silos described, built 
in Ontario, Canada, cost $75.00 ; capacity, 140 tons. 



98 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Other and better built stave silos have been put up for 
$ioo for a loo-ton silo, and this may be considered an 
average price for such a silo, made of white pine, 
hemlock or any lumber that is cheapest in the particu- 
lar locality where the silo is to be built. If built of 
Southern cypress, and complete with conical roof and 
doors, the price of stave silos will in the North come 
to about $1.50 per ton capacity, small silos being a 
little dearer, and larger ones a little cheaper than this 
average figure. 

Estimating Materials and Cost of Silos. 

Several writers on silo construction have published 
bills of materials used in the construction of silos of 
moderate sizes of the following three types : Wiscon- 
sin Improved Silo, Modified Wisconsin Silo, and Stave 
Silo. Farmers contemplating building a silo, can use 
these estimates for figuring out the approximate cost 
of silos of the three kinds under his conditions as to 
cost of materials and labor. The estimates are made 
for silos built in the open, on level land. On hillsides 
deeper walls maj^ be made to advantage, and where 
the silo is located within a building no roof will be 
needed. Consequently various factors may alter the 
application of these estimates, which are only offered 
as suggestive, with the hope they may prove helpful. 
The first three estimates of materials are published by 
Prof. Plumb, while the others have been furnished by 
Professors King and Withycombe. 

Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin l77ip7'oved Silos. 

Size, 30 feet deep, 14 feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons. 

Brick — 3375 for foundation, I foot thick, 3 feet deep. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long-. 

Studs— 50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long-. 

Flooring for doors — 32 feet, 4 matched. 

Sheeting^— 3000 feet. Yz inch, resawed from 2x6—16 foot 
plank sawed 3 times, dressed one side to uniform thickness, 
for inside lining- of two layers. 



ESTIMATE OF MATERIALS. 99 

L/ining- — 1500 feet of same for outside. 

Tar building- paper — 200 yards, water- and acid proof. 
- Nails— 200 lbs. 8-penny ; 200 lbs. 10-penny. 

Spikes— 20 lbs. 

Rafters — 22, 2x4, 10 feet long, for usual ridge roof. 

Sheeting- for roof — 350 feet of 16 foot boards. 

Shing-les- 3000. 

Shingle nails — 12 lbs. 

Dormer window for filling through. Paint — 7 gallons, 
providing- two coats. 

Cement — 2 barrels, for cementing- bottom. 



Estimate of Material for a Modified Wisco7isin Silo. 

Same capacity as preceding-. 

Brick-350 for foundation, 8 in. wide, 5 in. thick. 

S.tuds-50 pieces 2x4, 16 ft. long-. 

Studs-50 pieces 2x4, 14 ft. long. 

Sheeting--3000 ft. >4 in. resawed from 2x6, 16 ft. plank 
sawed three times, dressed to uniform thickness for inside 
lining- of two layers. 

Tar building- paper 200 yards water-and acid proof. 

Nails-150 lbs. 8 penny. 

Spikes-12 lbs. 

No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or pro- 
vided for in this construction. 



Estimate of Materials Jor Stave Silo. 

Size 12x28 ft. capacity, 60 tons. 

Brick-1800 for foundation, i foot thick, 2 ft. deep. 
Staves-77 2x6, 16 ft. dressed 4 sides. 
Staves-77 2x6, 12 ft. dressed 4 sides. 

Rods-10, 19>^ ft. long- Yz in iron, with yi threaded ends 
and nuts. 

Staples-2 gross ^x2 in. 

Iron tighteners-20 holding- ends of hoops. 

Rafters-2 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof center. 

Rafters-2 2x6 pieces 13 ft. long for roof, next center. 

Side rafters-48 ft. 2x4 pieces. 

Roof sheeting-lyO ft. common. 

Tin sheeting-196 ft. 

Cement for floor-2 bbls. 

LofC. 



lOO HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin Improved Silo. 

Size, 30 ft. deep, 20 ft. inside diameter, capacity, 
200 tons. 

Stone foundation, 7.5 perch. 

Studs, 2x4, 14 and 16 feet, 1,491 feet. 

Rafters, 2x4, 12 feet, 208 feet. 

Roof boards, fencing, 500 feet. 

Shingles, 6 M. 

Siding, rabbeted, 2,660 feet. 

Lining, fencing, ripped, 2,800 feet. 

Tarred paper, 740 lbs. 

Coal tar, i barrel. 

Hardware, $6.00. 

Painting (60 cents per sqaure) $13.20. 

Cementing bottom, /5.00. 

Carpenter labor (at $3 per M. and board) $33.17. 

The estimated cost of the last silo is $246.39; it is 
an outside, wholly independent structure, except con- 
nected with the barn in the manner shown in fig. 20, 
with entrance and feeding chute toward the barn. 

Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo. 

12 ft. in diameter, 24 ft. deep, capacity, 49 tons. 

1 2-3 yards of rock or g-ravel. 
4 barrels of sand. 
1 barrel of cement. 
2260 ft. tong-ued and g-rooyed staves. 
72 ft. 3x6, 24 ft. door frames. 

358 ft. }i in. round iron for hoops and bolts, weig"ht, 465 
lbs. 
9 lug-s. 
54 nuts. 
Preservative (SI. 50). 

If the silo is constructed outside, materials for roof 
and painting are to be added to the preceding list. 

Although most of the foregoing descriptions of stave 
silos do not mention tongued and grooved staves, the 
latest practices indicate that, if properly done, it is a 



PRESERVATION OF SILOS. lOI 

decided advantage to have the staves matched, also 
slightly beveled. The silo made in this manner will 
not be so liable to go to pieces when empty. This is 
the chief objection to the stave silo, and numerous 
cases are on record where stave silos standing in ex- 
posed places have blown over when empty. It is 
recommended, therefore, that stave silos be attached, 
to the barn by means of a feeding chute, and in the 
case of high or exposed silos it is well to make use of 
guy rods or wires in addition. Indeed, some manu- 
facturers of stave silos now recommend these on some 
of their silos, and make provision for them. 

Preservation of Silos, 

A silo building will not remain sound for many 
years unless special precautions are taken to preserve 
it. This holds good of all kinds of silos, but more es- 
pecially of wooden ones, since a cement coating in a 
stone silo, even if only fairly well made, will better 
resist the action of the silage juices than the wood- 
work will be able to keep sound in the presence of 
moisture, high temperature, and an abundance of 
bacterial life. 

In case of wooden silos it is necessary to apply some 
material which will render the wood impervious to 
water, and preserv^e it from decay. A great variety of 
preparation have been recommended and used for this 
purpose. Coal tar has been applied by a large number 
of farmers, and has been found effective and durable. 
It may be put on either hot, alone or mixed with 
resin, or dissolved in gasoline. If it is to be applied 
hot, some of the oil contained in the tar must pre- 
viously be burnt off. The tar is poured into an iron 
kettle, a handful of straw is ignited and thrown into 
the kettle, which will cause the oil to flash and burn 
off. The tar is sufficiently burnt when it will string 
out in fine threads, a foot or more in length, from a 
stick which has been thrust into the blazino kettle and 



I02 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

afterward plunged into cold water. The fire is then 
put out by placing a tight cover over the kettle. The 
kettle must be kept over the fire until the silo lining 
has been gone over. A mop or a small whisk broom 
cut short, so it is stiff, may serve for putting on the 
tar. 

Coal tar and gasoline have also been used by many 
with good success. About half a gallon of coal tar 
and two-thirds of a gallon of gasoline are mixed at a 
time, stirring it while it is being put on. Since 
gasoline is highly inflammable, care must be taken not 
to have any fire around when this mixture is applied. 
Asbestos paint has also been recommended for the 
preservation of silo walls, and would seem to be well 
adapted for this purpose. 

Many silos are preserved by application of a mix- 
ture of equal parts of boiled linseed oil and black oil, 
or one part of the former to two of the latter. This 
mixture, applied every other year, before filling time, 
seems to preserve the lining perfectly. In building 
round silos, it is recommended topaint the boards with 
hot coal tar, and placing the painted sides face to face. 

Manufacturers of stave silos and fixtures put up 
special prepartions for preserving th-e silos, which 
they send out with the staves. These are generally 
simply compounds similar to those given in the pre- 
ceding, and are sold to customers at practically cost 
price. 

Walls of wooden silos that have been preserved by 
one or the other of these methods will only keep 
sound and free from decay if the silos are built so as 
to insure good ventilation. Preservatives will not 
save a non-ventilated silo structure from decay. 

Plastered wooden silos are preserved, as we have 
seen by applying a whitewash of pure cement as often 
as found necessary, which may be every two or three 
years. The same applies to stone and cement silos. 
The degree of moisture and acidity in the silage corn 



PRESERVATION OF SILOS. I03 

will doubtless determine how often the silo walls have 
to be gone over with a cement wash; a very acid silage, 
made from immature corn will be likely to soften the 
cement coating sooner than so-called sweet silage 
made from nearly mature corn. 

A considerable number of wood siles are in use that 
were not treated on the inside with any preservative 
or paint and have stood very well. Indeed, some 
writers maintain that if the silo is well protected on 
the outside that a stave silo receives little if any 
benefit from inside coatings. 



CHAPTER III. 

SILAGE CROPS. 

Indian Corn. — Indian corn is, as has already been 
stated, the main silage crop in this country, and is 
likely to always remain so. Before explaining the 
filling of the silo and the making of silage, it will be 
well, therefore, to state briefly the main conditions 
which govern the production of a large crop of corn 
for the silo, and to examine which varieties of corn 
are best adapted for silage making. 

Soils best adapted to corn culture a?id preparation of 
land. The soils best adapted to the culture of Indian 
corn are well-drained medium soils, loams, or sandy 
loams, in a good state of fertility. Corn will give 
best results coming after clover. The preparation of 
the land for growing corn is the same whether ear 
corn or forage is the object. Fall plowing is practiced 
by many successful corn growers. The seed is plant- 
ed on carefully prepared ground at such a time as con- 
venient and advisable. Other things being equal, the 
earlier the planting the better, after the danger of 
frost is ordinarily over. "The early crop may fail, 
but the late crop is almost sure to fail." After plant- 
ing, the soil should be kept pulverized and thoroughly 
cultivated. Shallow cultivation will ordinarily give 
better results than deep cultivation, as the former 
method suffices to destroy the weeds and to preserve 
the soil moisture, which are the essential points sought 
in cultivating crops. The cultivation should be no 
more frequent than is necessary for the complete erad- 
ication of weeds. It has been found that the yield 
of corn may be decreased by too frequent, as well as 
by insufiicient cultivation. The general rule may be 



VARIETIES OF CORN FOR SILAGE. 105 

given to cultivate as often, but no oftener, than is 
necessary to kill the weeds, or to keep the soil pulver- 
ized. 

The cultivator may be started to advantage as soon 
as the young plants break through the surface, and 
the soil kept stirred and weeds detroyed, until culti- 
vation is no longer practicable. 1ZZD 
Varieties of corn for the silo. — The best corn for the 
silo, in any locality, is that variety which will be 
reasonably sure to mature before frost, and which 
produces a large amount of foliage and ears. The 
best varieties for the New England States, are the 
Leaming, Sanford, and Flint corn ; for the Middle 
States, Leaming, White and Ye-llow Dent ; in the 
Central and Western States, the Leaming, Sanford, 
Flint and White Dent will be apt to give the best re- 
sults, while in the South, the Southern Horse Tooth, 
Mosby Prolific, and other large dent corns are pre- 
ferred. 

For Canada, Rennie gives, as the varieties best 
adapted tor the silo ; for Northern Ontario, North 
Dakota and Compton's Early Flint ; for Central On- 
tario, larger and heavier-yielding varieties may be 
grown, viz.. Mammoth Cuban and Wisconsin Earliest 
White Dent. It is useless to grow a variety for silage 
w^hich will not be in a firm, dough state by the time 
the first frosts are likel}^ to appear. 

In the early stages of siloing corn in this country, 
the effort was to obtain an immense yield of fodder 
per acre, no matter whether the corn ripened or not. 
Large yields were, doubtless, often obtained with these 
big varieties, although it is uncertain that the actual 
jdelds ever came up to the claims made. Bailey's 
Mammoth Ensilage Corn, "if planted upon good corn 
land, in good condition, well matured, with proper 
cultivation," was guaranteed to produce from forty to 
to seventy-five tons of green fodder to the acre, " just 
right for ensilage." We now^ know^ that the immense 



io6 



SILAGE CROPS. 



Southern varieties of corn, when grown to an imma- 
ture stage, as must necessarily be the case in Northern 
States, may contain less than ten per cent, of dry 
matter, the rest (more than nine-tenths of the total 
weight) being made up of water. This is certainly a 
remarkable fact, when we remember that skim-milk, 
even when obtained by the separator process, will con- 
tain nearly ten per cent, of solid matter. 

In speaking of corn intended to be cut for forage at 
an immature stage. Professor Robertson, of Canada, 
said at a Wisconsin Farmers' Institute, " Fodder corn 
sowed broadcast does not meet the needs of milking 
cows. Such a fodder is mainly a device of a thought- 
less farmer to fool his cows into believing that they 
have been fed, when they have only been filled up." 
The same applies with equal strength to the use of 
large, immature Southern varieties for fodder, or for 
the silo, in Northern States. 

In comparative variety tests with corn in the North, 
Southern varieties have usuallj^ been found to furnish 
larger quantities per acre of both green fodder and to- 
tal dry matter in the fodder, than the smaller North- 
ern varieties. As an average of seven culture trials, 
Professor Jordan thus obtained the following results 
at the Maine Station. 

Comparative Yiei^ds of Southern Corn and Maine 
F1E1.D Corn Grown in Maine, 1888-1893. 





Southern Corn. 


Maine Field Corn. 




Green 
Fod- 
der. 


Dry 

Substance. 


Digestible 
Matter. 


Green 
Fod- 
der. 


Dry 

Substance. 


Dig-estible 
Matter. 




Per 
Cent. 


I,bs. 


Per 

ct. 


Lbs. 


Per 
Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 

Ct. 


Lbs. 


Maximum. .. 
Minimum — 
Averag^e 


46,340 
26,295 
34,761 


16.58 
12,30 
14.50 


6,237 
3,234 
5,036 


69 
61 
65 


3,923 
2,102 
3,251 


29,400 
14,212 
22,269 


25.43 
13,55 
18.75 


7.064 
2,415 
4,224 


78 
70 
72 


4,945 
1,715 
3,076 



TIME OF CUTTING CORN FOR vSILAGK. 107 

The average percentage digestibility of the dry sub- 
stance IS 65 per cent for the Southern corn, and 72 per 
cent for the Maine field corn, all the results obtained 
for the former varieties being lower than those ob- 
tained for the latter. While the general result for the 
five years, so far as the yield of digestible matter is 
concerned, is slightly in favor of the Southern varie- 
ties, the fact should not be lost sight of that an aver- 
age of 6^ tons more of material has annually to be 
handled over several times, in case of these varieties 
of corn, in order to gain 175 pounds more of digestible 
matter per acre ; we, therefore, conclude that the 
smaller, less watery, variet}^ of corn really proved the 
more profitable. 

At other Northern stations similar results, or results 
more favorable to the Northern varieties, have been 
obtained, showing that the modern practice of growing 
only such corn for the silo as will mature in the par- 
ticular locality of each farmer, is borne out by the 
results of careful culture tests. 

Time of cutting corn for the silo. In order to deter- 
mine at what stage of growth corn had better be cut 
when intended for the silo, it is necessary to ascertain 
the amounts of food materials which the corn plant 
contains at the different stages, and the proportion of 
different ingredients at each stage. From careful and 
exhaustive studies of the changes occurring in the 
composition of the corn plant, which have been con- 
ducted both in this country and abroad, we know that 
as the corn approaches maturity the nitrogenous or 
flesh- forming substances decrease in proportio?i to the 
other components, while the non-nitrogenous compon- 
ents, especially starch (see Glossary), increase very 
markedly ; this increase continues until the crop is 
nearly mature, so long as the leaves are still green. 
Several experiment stations have made investigations 
in regard to this point. As an illustration we give 
below data obtained by Prof. I^add, in an investiga- 



io8 



SILAGE CROPS. 



tion in which fodder corn was cut and analyzed at 
five different stages of growth, from full tasseling to 
maturity. 

Chemicai. Chan'ges in the Corn Crop. 



Yield per Acre. 

Gross Weight 

Water in the Crop 

Dry Matter 

Ash 

Crude Protein 

Crude Fiber . 

Nitrogen-free Kxtract 
(starch, sugar, etc) 
Crude Fat 



Tas- 

seled, 

July 30 



Pounds 
18045 
16426 
1619 
138 9 
239.8 
514 2 

653 9 

72.2 



Silked 
Aug. 9. 



Pounds 
25745 
22666 
3078 
201 . 3 
436 8 
872.9 



Milk, 
Aug. 21 



Pounds 

32600 

27957 

4643 

232 2 

478.7 

1262.0 



1399 3 j 2441 3 
167. 8i 228.9 



Glazed Ripe 
Sept. 7,! Sept. 23 



Pounds Pounds 

32295 1 28460 

25093 20542 

7202 7918 

302.5 364 2 

643.9' 677 8 

2755. 9| 1734 

4239.8:4827.6 
260. O; 314.3 



The data given above show how rapidly the yield of 
food materials increases with the advancing age of the 
corn, and also that the increase during the later stages 
of growth comes largely on the nitrogen-free extract 
(starch, sugar, etc.). 

The results as to this point obtained at several ex- 
periment stations have been summarized and are given 
in the following table, showing the increase in food 
ingredients during the stages previous to maturity. 

We thus find that the largest amount of food ma- 
terials in the corn crop is not obtained until the corn 
is well ripened. When a corn plant has reached its 
total growth in height it has, as shown by the results 
given in the last table, attained only one-third to one- 
half of the weight of dry matter it will gain if left to 
maturity; hence we see the wisdom of postponing cut- 
ting the corn for the silo, as in general for forage pur- 
poses, until rather late in the season, when it can be 
done without danger of frost. 

The table given in the preceding, and our discussion 



FOOD INGREDIENTS AT VARIOUS STAGES. 109 



Increase in Food Ingredients from Tassewng to 
Maturity. 



Experiment 
Station. 



Cornell, N. Y. 



Geneva, N. Y. 
New Hamp. 
Pennsylvania 
Vermont. 



Averag-es of 



Variety 



Pride of the 

North 

Pride of the 

North 

King- Philip 
Av. of 4Var. 
Av.of lOVar 
Av. of 2 Var 



all trials 



Stage of Maturity-. 



First 
Cutting. 



Bloom 

Tasseled 

(( 

a 

Bloom 



Ivast 
Cutting 



>.2 



Mature 
Nearly 
mature 
Mature 
G-lazed 
Mature 
Glazed 



Gain in per cent 

between first and 

last cutting. 






■H o 



150 

217 
389 
112 
155 
122 
204 

193 



90 

134 

183 
50 

50 
81 



98 





cc 


129 


169 


374 


300 


335 


462 


84 


130 


230 


265 



SO far, have taken into account only the total, and not 
the digestible components of the corn. 

It has been found through careful digestion trials 
that older plants are somewhat less digestible than 
young plants. There is, however, no such difference 
in the digestibility of the total dry matter or its com- 
ponents as is found in the total quantities obtained 
from plants at the different stages of growth, and the 
total yields of dig'estible matter in the corn will there- 
fore be greater at maturity, or directly before this 
time, than at any earlier stage of grow^th. Hence we 
find that the general practice of cutting corn for the* 
silo at the time when the corn is in the roasting-ear 
stage, when the kernels have become rather firm, and 
are dented or beginning to glaze, is good science and 
in accord with our best knowledge on the subject. 

Other reasons why cutting at a late period of 
growth is preferable in siloing corn are found in the 
fact that the quality of the silage made from such 
corn is greatly better than that obtained from green 



1 lO SILAGE CROPS. 

immature corn, and in the fact that the sugar is most 
abundant in the corn plant in the early stages of ear 
development, but the loss of non-nitrogenous com- 
ponents in the silo falls first of all on the sugar; hence 
it is the best policy to postpone cutting until the grain 
is full-size and the sugar has largely been changed to 
starch. 

It does not do, however, as related under Uniformity 
in the first chapter to delaj'- the cutting so long that 
the corn plant becomes too dry, for the reasons stated. 
Silage does not spoil when too wet, but will mold 
if too dry. Experience will be the best guide, but the 
foregoing pages should enable the reader to form the 
right idea as to time for filling, which to secure the 
best results, is nearly as important as to have ma- 
terial with which to fill the silo. 

Methods of Planting Corn. When the corn crop is 
intended for the silo, it should be planted somewhat 
closer than is ordinarily the case when the production 
of a large crop of ear corn is the primary object 
sought. Thin seeding favors the development of well- 
developed, strong plants, but not the production of a 
large amount of green forage. The number of plants 
which can be brought to perfect development on a cer- 
tain piece of land depends upon the state of fertility 
of the land, the character of the season, especiallj" 
whether it is a wet or a dry season, as well as on other 
factors, hence no absolute rule can be given as to the 
best thickness of planting corn for the silo. Numerous 
•experiments conducted in different parts of the 
country have shown, however, that the largest quan- 
tities of green fodder per acre can ordinarily be ob- 
tained by planting the corn in hills three or even two 
feet apart, or in drills three or four feet apart, with 
plants six or eight inches apart in the row. 

It makes little if any difference, so far as the yield 
obtained is concerned, whether the corn be planted in 
hills or in drills, when the land is kept free from weeds 



METHODS OF PLANTING CORN. Ill 

in both cases, but it facilitates the cutting considerably 
to plant the corn in drills if this is done by means of a 
oorn harvester or sled cutter; as is now generally the 
case. The yield seems more dependent on the num- 
ber of plants growing on a certain area of land than 
on the arrangements of planting the corn. Hills four 
feet each way, with four stalks to the hill, with thus 
usually give about the same yields as hills two feet 
apart, with two stalks in the hill, or drills four feet 
apart, with stalks one foot apart in the row, etc. The 
question of planting corn in hills or in drills is there- 
fore largely one of greater or less labor in keeping the 
land free from weeds by the two methods. This will 
depend on the character of the land; where the land 
is uneven, and check-rowing of the corn difficult, or 
when the land is free from weeds, drill planting is 
preferable, while, conversely, on fields where this can 
be done, the corn may more easily and cheaply be kept 
free from weeds if planted in hills and check-rowed. 
Since one of the advantages of the silo is the economi- 
cal production and preservation of a good quality of 
feed, the economy and certainty in caring for the 
growing crop is of considerable importance, and gen- 
erally, planting in hills not too far apart will be found 
to facilitate this, especially during wet seasons. 

Corn is planted in hills or in drills, and not broad- 
cast, whether intended for the silo, or for production 
of ear corn; when sown broadcast, the corn cannot be 
kept free from weeds, except by hand labor. More 
seed is moreover required, the plants shade each 
other and will therefore not reach full development, 
from lack of sufficient sunshine and moisture, and a 
less amount of available food constituents per acre will 
be produced. 

Other Silage Crops. 

Clover. -Clover is second to Indian corn in im- 
portance as a silage crop. We are but beginning to 



112 SILAGE CROPS. 

appreciate the value of clover in modern agriculture. 
It has been shown that the legumes, the family to 
which clover belongs, are the only common forage 
plants able to convert the free nitrogen of the air into 
compounds that may be utilized for the nutrition of 
animals. Clover and other legumes, therefore, draw 
largely on the air for the most expensive and valuable 
fertilizing ingredient, nitrogen, and for this reason, 
as well as on account of their deep roots, which bring 
fertilizing elements up near the surface, they enrich 
the land upon which they grow. Being a more nitro- 
genous feed than corn or the grasses, clover supplies 
a good deal of the protein compounds required by farm 
animals for the maintenance of their bodies and for 
the production of milk, wool, or meat. By feeding 
clover, a smaller purchase of high-priced concentrated 
feed stuffs, like flour-mill or oil-mill refuse products, 
is therefore rendered necessary than when corn is fed; 
on account of its high fertilizing value it furthermore 
enables the farmer feeding it to maintain the fertility 
of his land. 

When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed 
for nearly all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher 
protein content it has an advantage over corn silage 
in point of lower cost of production. A Wisconsin 
dairy farmer who has siloed large quantities of clover es- 
timates the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents 
to $1, against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. His 
average yields per acre of green clover are about 
twelve tons. 

Clover silage is superior to clover hay on account of 
its succulence and greater palatability, as well as its 
higher feeding value. The last-mentioned point is 
mainly due to the fact that all the parts of the clover 
plant are preserved in the silo, with a small unavoid- 
able loss in fermentation, while in hay- making, leaves 
and tender parts, which contain about two- thirds of 



CLOVER . 



II 



the protein compounds, are often largely lost by 
abrasion. 

Clover may easily and cheaply be placed in a modern 
silo and preserved in a perfect condition. The 
failures reported in the early stages of silo filling were 
largely due to a faulty construction of the silo. Clover 
does not pack as well as the heavy green corn, and 
therefore requires to be cut and w^eighted, or calls for 
greater depth in the silo, in order that the air may be 
sufficietitly excluded. 

When to Cut Clover for the Silo. The yield of food 
materials obtained from clover at different stages of 
growth has been studied by a number of scientists. 
The following table giving the results of an investi- 
gation conducted by Professor Atwater will show 
the total quantities of food materials secured at 
four different stages of growth of red clover. 



Y1E1.D PER Acre of Red Ci^over — in Pounds. 



Stage of 


Green 


Dry 


Crude 


Crude 


N-free 


Crude 


Ash 


Cutting. 


Weig-ht. 


Matter. 


Protein 


Fiber. 


Extract 


Fat. 




Just before 
















bloom 


3,570 


1,385 


198 


384 


664 


24 


115 


Full bloom. . 


2,650 


1,401 


189 


390 


682 


Z7> 


107 


Nearly out of 
















bloom 


4,960 


1,750 


230 


523 


837 


31 


129 


Nearly ripe. . 


3,910 


1,523 


158 


484 


746 


36 


99 



Professor Hunt obtained 3,600 pounds of ha^^ per 
acre from clover cut in full bloom, and 3,260 pounds 
when three-fourths of the heads were dead. The 
yields of dry matter, in the two cases were 2,526 
pounds, and 2,427 pounds respectively. All compo- 
nents, except crude fibre (see Glossary), yielded less 
per acre in the second cutting. Jordan found the 
same result, comparing the yields and composition of 
clover cut when in bloom, some heads dead, and heads 
all dead , the earliest cutting giving the maximum 



.114 SILAGE CROPS. 

yield of dry matter, and of all components except 
crude fibre. 

The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for 
the silo when in full bloom, or when the first single 
heads are beginning to wilt, that is, when right for 
hay making, and we notice that the teachings of the 
investigations made are in conformity with this prac- 
tice. 

Alfalfa (lucern) is the great, coarse forage plant of 
the West, and during late years, it is being grown con- 
siderably in the Northern and Central States. In irri- 
gated districts it will 3'ield more food materials per acre 
of land than perhaps an 3' other crop. Four to five 
cuttings, each yielding a ton to a ton and a half of 
hay, are common in these regions, and the yields ob- 
tained are often much higher. In humid regions 
three cuttings ma}^ ordinarily be obtained, each of one 
to one and a half tons of hay. 

While the large bulk of the crop is cured as hay, 
alfalfa is also of considerable importance as a silage 
crop in dairy sections of the Western States. As 
with red clover, reports of failure in siloing alfalfa are 
on record, but first-class alfalfa silage can be readily 
made in deep, modern silos, when the crop is cut when 
in full bloom, and the plants are not allowed to wilt 
much before being run through a cutter and siloed. 
In the opinion of dairymen who have had large expe- 
rience in siloing alfalfa, sweet alfalfa silage is more 
easily made than good alfalfa hay. 

What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover 
refers to alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares fa- 
vorably with clover silage, both in chemical composi- 
tion and in feeding value. It is richer in flesh-form- 
ing substances (protein) than clover silage, or any 
other kind of silage, and makes a most valuable feed 
for farm animals, especially young stock and dairy 
•cows. 

Cow peas are to the South what alfalfa is to the 



cow PEAS 115 

West, and when properly handled makes excellent and 
most valuable silage. The cow peas are sown early in 
the season, either broadcast, about \}i bushels to the 
acre and turned under with a one-horse turning plow, 
or drilled in rows about two feet apart. They are cut 
with a mower when one-half or more of the peas on 
the vines are fully ripe, and are immediately raked in 
winrows and hauled to the silo, where they are run 
through a feed cutter and cut into inch lengths. 

Cow-pea silage is greatly relished by farm animals 
after they once become accustomed to its peculiar 
flavor ; farmers who have had considerable practical 
experience in feeding this silage are of the opinion 
that cow-pea silage has no equal for cows and sheep. 
It is also a good hog food, and for all these animals is 
considered greatl}^ superior to pea- vine hay. In feed- 
ing experiments at a Delaware experiment station six 
pounds of pea-vine silage fully took the place of one 
pound of wheat bran, and the product of one acre 
was found equivalent to two tons of bran. 

Instead of placing only cow peas in the silo, alternate 
loads of cow peas and corn may be cut and filled into 
the silo, which will make a very satisfactory mixed 
silage. A modification of this practice is known as 
Getty' s method, in which corn and cow peas are grown 
in alternate rows, and harvested together with a corn 
harvester. Corn for this combination crop is prefer- 
ably a large Southern variety, drilled in rows 4^ feet 
apart, with stalks 9 to 16 inches apart in the row. 
Whippoorwill peas are planted in drills close to the 
rows of corn when this is about six inches high, and 
has been cultivated once. The crop is cut when the 
corn is beginning to glaze, and when three-fourths of 
the pea pods are ripe. 

The corn and peas are tied into bundles and these 
run through the silage cutter. The cut corn and peas 
are carefully levelled off and trampled down in the 
silo, and about a foot cover of green corn, straw or 



Il6 SILAGE CROPS. 

cotton-seed hulls placed on top of the siloed mass. As 
in case of all legumes, it is safest to wet the cover 
thoroughly with at least two gallons of water per 
square foot of surface. This will seal the siloed mass 
thoroughly and will prevent the air from working in 
from the surface and spoiling considerable of the silage 
on top. 

A similar effort of combining several feeds for the 
silo is found in the so-called Robertson Ensilage Mix- 
ture for the silo, named after Prof. Robertson in 
Canada; this is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower 
seed heads, and horse beans in the proportion of i 
acre corn, ^ acre horse beans, and % acre sunflowers. 
The principle back of the practice is to furnish a feed 
richer in protein substances than corn, and thus avoid 
the purchase of large quantities of expensive pro- 
tein foods like bran, oil meal, etc. Feeding experi- 
ments conducted with the Robertson Silage Mixture 
for cows at several experiment stations have given 
very satisfactory results, and have shown that this 
silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain 
ration of milch cows without causing loss of flesh or 
lessening the production of milk or fat. Fifteen 
pounds of this silage may be considered equivalent to 
three or four pounds of grain feeds. The practice has 
not, however, been adopted to any great extent, so 
iar as is known, owing to the difficulty of securing a 
•good quality of silage from the mixture and of grow- 
ing the horsebeans successfully. 

Soja beajis (soy beans) are another valuable silage 
•crop. According to the U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture the soy bean is highly nutritive, gives a heavy 
yield, and is easily cultivated. The vigorous late 
varieties are well adapted for silage. The crop is fre- 
quently siloed with corn (2 parts of the latter to i of 
the former), and like other legumes it improves the 
silage by tending to counteract the acid reaction of 
corn silage. Of other Southern crops that are used 



MISCEIvIvANEOUS SILAGE CROPS. II7 

for silage crops may be mentioned Kaffir com, chicken 
corn and teosinte. 

Sorgum is sometimes siloed in the Western and 
Middle States. It is sown in drills, 3^ inches apart, 
with a stalk every six to ten inches in the row, and is 
cut when the kernels are in the dough stage, or be- 
fore. According to Shelton, the medium-growing 
saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums are all ex- 
cellent for silage. The sorghums are less liable to 
damage by insects than corn, and they remain green 
far into the fall, so that the work of filling the silo 
may be carried on long after the corn is ripe and the 
stalks all dried up. The yield per acre of green 
sorghum will often reach 20 tons, or one-half as much 
again as a good crop of corn. These considerations 
lead Professor Shelton to pronounce sorghum greatly 
superior to corn as silage materials, in Kansas, and 
generally throughout the Central Western States. 
The Ottawa (Can.) states that sorghum, where it can 
be grown makes an excellent crop for silage. It needs 
to be cut, the best length, as in the case of corn be- 
ing three-quarters or an inch long, or less. 

Miscellayieous Silage Crops. In Northern Europe, 
especially in England, and in the Scandinavian 
countries, meadow grass and after-math {rowen) are 
usually siloed; in England, at the present time^ large- 
ly in stacks. 

In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar- 
beet pulp can be obtained in large quantities and at a 
low cost, stock feeders and dairymen have a most 
valuable aid in preserving the pulp in the silo. As 
the pulp is taken from the factory it contains about 
90 per cent of water; it packs well in the silo, being 
heavy, finely divided and homogeneous, and a more 
shallow silo can therefore be safely used in making 
pulp silage than is required in siloing corn, and es- 
pecially clover and other crops of similar character. 
,If pulp is siloed with other fodder crops, it is pre- 



il8 SILAGE CROPS. 

ferably placed uppermost, for the reason stated. Beet 
tops and pulp are often siloed in alternate layers in 
pits 3 to 4 feet deep, and covered with boards and a 
layer of dirt. Beet pulp can also be successfully 
placed in any modern deep silo, and is preferably siloed 
in such silos as there will then be much smaller losses 
of food materials than in case of shallow silos or 
trenches in the field. 

Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low 
in ash and carbohydrates (nutr. ratio 1:5.7; see 
Glossary). Its feeding value is equal to about half 
that of corn silage. 

Occasional mention has furthermore been made in 
the agricultural literature of the siloing of a large 
number of plants, or products, like vetches, small 
grains (cut green), cabbage leaves, sugar beets, 
potatoes, potato leaves, turnips, brewers' grains, 
apple pomace, refuse from corn and pea canning 
factories; twigs, and leaves, and hop vines; even fern 
(brake), thistles, and ordinary weeds have been made 
into silage, and used with more or less success as 
foods for farm animals. 

At a recent convention of the Cal. Dairy Association, 
the president, Mr. A. P. Martin, stated that the best 
silage he ever made, besides corn, was made of w^eeds. 
A piece of wheat which was sowed early, was 
drowned out, and the field came up with tar weed and 
sorrel. This was made into silage, and when fed to 
milch cows, produced most satisfactory results. 

Alvord says that a silo may be found a handy and 
profitable thing to have on a farm even if silage crops 
are not regularly raised to fill it. There are always 
waste products, green or half-dry, wnth coarse ma- 
terials like swale hay, that are generally used for 
compost or bedding, which may be made into pala- 
table silage. A mixture, in equal parts, of rag- weed, 
swamp grass or swale hay, old corn stalks or straw, 
and second-crop green clover, nearly three- fourths of 



MISCEIvI.ANKOUS SII.AGE CROPS. II9 

which would otherwise be almost useless, will make a 
superior silage, surprising to those who have never 
tried it. 

The following description of the contents filled into 
a New York silo, which was used as a sort of catch- 
all, is given by the same writer: i, 18 in. deep of 
green oats; 2, 6 in. of red clover; 3, 6 in. of Canada 
field peas; 4, 3 in. of brewers' grains; 5, 2 feet of 
whole corn plants, sowed broadcast, and more rag- 
weed than corn; 6, 5 in. of second-crop grass; 7, 12 in. 
of sorghum: 8, a lot immature corn cut in short 
lengths. The silage came out pretty acid, but 
made good forage, and was all eaten up clean. 
Damaged crops like frosted beets, potatoes, 
cabbages, etc. ; rutabages which showed signs of de- 
cay, and clover that could not be made into hay be- 
cause of rain, may all be placed in a silo and thus 
made to contribute to the food supply on the farm. 

A peculiar use of the silo is reported from California, 
viz., for rendering foxtail in alfalfa fields harmless in 
feeding cattle. The foxtail which almost takes the 
first crop of alfalfa in many parts of California, is a 
nutritious grass, but on account of its beards, is dan- 
gerous to feed. By siloing the crop the grass is said 
to be rendered perfectly harmless; the alfalfa- foxtail 
silage thus obtained is eaten by stock with great relish 
and without any injurious effects (Wall). 



CHAPTER IV. 

HOW TO MAKE SII.AGE. 

Filling the Silo, 

A. Indian Corn. As previously stated, corn should 
be left in the field before cutting until it has passed 
through the dough stage i. e., when the kernels are 
well dented, or glazed, in case of flint varieties. 
Where very large silos are filled, and in cases of ex- 
treme dry weather when the corn is fast drying up, it 
will be well to begin filling the silo a little before it 
has reached this stage, as the greater portion of the 
corn would otherwise be apt to be too dry. There is, 
however, less danger in this respect now than former- 
ly, on account of our modern deep silos, and because 
we have found that water applied directly to the 
fodder in the silo acts in the same way as water in the 
fodder, and keeps the fermentations in the silo in 
check and in the right track. 

Ctitting the Corn in the Field. The cutting of corn 
for the silo is usually on small farms done by hand by 
means of a corn knife. Manj^ farmers have been using 
self-raking and binding corn harvesters for this pur- 
pose, while others report good success with a sled or 
platform cutter. If the corn stands up well, and is 
not of a very large variety, the end sought may be 
reached in a satisfactory manner by either of these 
methods. If, on the other hand, much of the corn is 
down, hand cutting is to be preferred. A number of 
different makes of corn harvesters and corn cutters are 
now on the market; and, it is very likely that hand' 
cutting of fodder corn will be largely done away with 
in years to come, at least on large farms, indeed, it 
looks as if the day of the corn knife was passing away, 



CUTTING THE CORN. 121 

and as if this implement will soon be relegated to ob- 
scurity with the sickle of our fathers' time. 

If a corn harvester is used, it will be found to be a 
great advantage to have the bundles made what seems 
rather small. It will take a little more twine, but the 
loaders, the haulers, the unloaders, and even the 
Silage Cutter itself will handle much more corn in a 
day if the bundles are small and light, and it will be 
found to be economy to see that this is done. 

A platform cutter, which was used with great suc- 
cess, is described by a veteran Wisconsin dairj^man, 
the late Mr. Charles R. Beach. 

"We use two wagons, with platforms built upon 
two timbers, eighteen feet long, suspended beneath 
the axles. These platforms are about eighteen inches 
from the ground and are seven feet wide. The cutting- 
knife is fastened upon a small removable platform, 
two feet by about three and one-half feet, which is at- 
tached to the side of the large platform, and is about 
six or eight inches lower. One row is cut at a time, 
the knife striking the corn at an angle of about forty- 
five degrees. One man kneels on the small platform 
and takes the corn with his arm; two or three men 
stand upon the wagon, and as soon as he has gotten 
an armful, the men, each in turn, take it from him 
and pile it on the wagon. If the rows are long 
enough a load of one and one-half to two tons can be 
cut and loaded on in about eight to ten minutes. The 
small platform is detached from the wagon, the load 
driven to the silo, the platform attached to the other 
wagon, and another load is cut and loaded. None of 
the corn reaches the ground; no bending down to pick 
up. One team will draw^ men, cutter, and load, and I 
do not now well see how the method could be im- 
proved. With a steam engine, a large cutter, two 
teams and wagons, and ten men, we filled our silo 
22x24x18 feet (190 tons), fast, in less than two days." 

Professor Georgeson, %as described a one-horse 



122 



HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 



sledge-cutter which has given better satisfaction than 
any fodder-cutter tried at the Kansas Experiment 
Station. It is provided with two knives, which are 
hinged to the body of the sled, and can be folded in 
on the sled when not in use. It has been improved 
and made easier to pull b}^ providing it with four low 
and broad cast-iron wheels. It is pulled b}^ a single 
horse and cuts two rows at a time. Two men stand 
upon the cutter, each facing a row; as the corn is cut 
they gather it into armfuls, which they drop into 
heaps on the ground. A wagon with a low, broad 
rack follows, on which the corn is loaded and hauled 
to the silo. 

Similar corn cutters have been made by various 
manufacturers of late years and have proved quite sat- 
isfactory, although they require more hand labor than 
the corn har\'esters and do not leave the corn tied up 
and in as convenient shape for loading on the wagons 
as these do. It is also necessary to use care with the 
sledge tj'pe of corn cutter, as numerous cases are on 
record where both men and horses have been injured 
by getting in front of the knives, which project from 
the sides. 




Fig. 27. Low-down Rack for hauling fodder corn. 

A low-down rack for hauling the corn from the 
field is shown in the accompanjdng illustration (Fig. 
27 K It has been used for some years past at the Wis- 
consin Station, and is a great convenience in handling 
corn, saving both labor an(P time. These racks not 



SILOING CORN "ears AND ALI.." 1 23 

only dispense with a man upon the wagon when load- 
ing, but they materially lessen the labor of the man 
who takes the corn from the ground, for it is only the 
top of the load which needs to be raised shoulder-high; 
again, when it comes to unloading, the man can stand 
on the floor or ground and simply draw the corn 
toward him and lay it upon the table of the cutter, 
without stooping over and without raising the corn up 
to again throw it down. A plank that can easily be 
hitched on behind the truck will prove convenient for 
loading, so that the loader can pick up his armful and, 
walking up the plank, can drop it without much ex- 
ertion. 

I»f wilted fodder corn is to be siloed it should be 
shocked in the field to protect it as much as possible 
from rain before hauling it to the cutter. 

SILOING CORN, "ears AND ALL." 

The best practice in putting corn into the silo, is to 
silo the corn plant " ears and all," without previously 
husking it. If the ear corn is not needed for hogs 
and horses, or for seed purposes, this practice is in 
the line of economy, as it saves the expense of husk- 
ing, cribbing, shelling, and grinding the ear corn. 
The possible loss of food materials sustained in siloing 
the ear corn speaks against the practice, but this is 
very small, and more than couterbalanced by the ad- 
vantages gained by this method of procedure. In 
proof of this statement we will refer to an extended 
feeding trial with milch cows, conducted by Professor 
Woll at the Wisconsin Station in 1891. 

Corresponding row^s of a large corn field were siloed, 
"ears and all," and without ears, the ears belonging 
to the latter lot being carefully saved and air-dried. 
The total yield of silage with ears in it (whole-corn 
silage) w^as 56,459 pounds ; of silage without ears 
(stover silage) 34,496 pounds and of ear corn, 10,511 
pounds. The dry matter content of the lots obtained 



124 HOW TO MAKE SII.AGE. 

by the two methods of treatment was, in whole-corn 
silage, 19,950 pounds ; in stover silage 9,484 pounds, 
and in ear corn, 9,122 pounds, or 18,606 pounds of 
dry matter in the stover silage and ear corn combined. 
This shows a loss of 1,344 pounds of dry matter, or 
nearly 7 per cent, sustained by handling the fodder 
and ear corn separately instead of siloing the corn 
"ears and all." 

In feeding the two kinds of silage against each 
other, adding the dry ear corn to the stover silage, it 
was found that seventeen tons of whole-corn silage 
fed to sixteen cows produced somewhat better results 
than fourteen tons of stover silage, and more than 
two tons of dry ear corn, both kinds of silage having 
been supplemented by the same quantities of hay and 
grain feed. The jdeld of milk from the cows was 4 
per cent higher on the whole corn silage ration than 
on the stover silage ration, and the jaeld of fat was 
6.9 per cent higher on the same ration. It would 
seem then that the cheapest and best way of preserv- 
ing the corn crop for feeding purposes, at least in case 
of milch cows, is to fill it directly into the silo ; the 
greater portion of the corn may be cut and siloed 
when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage, and the 
corn plat which is to furnish ear corn ma}" be left in 
the field until the corn is fully matured, when it may 
be husked, and the stalks and leaves may be filled into 
the silo on top of the corn siloed "ears and all." 
This will then need some heav}' weighting or one or 
two applications of water on top of the corn, to in- 
sure a good qualit}' of silage from the rather dry 
stalks. (See page 133.) 

An experiment similar to the preceding one, con- 
ducted at the Vermont Station, in which the product 
from six acres of land was fed to dairy cows, gave 
similar results. We are justified in concluding, there- 
fore, that husking, shelling, and grinding the corn 
(proceSvSes that may cost more than a quarter of the 



FILLING THE SILO. 1 25 

market value of the meal) are labor and expense more 
than wasted, since the cows do better on the corn si- 
loed "ears and all" than on that siloed after the ears 
were picked off and fed ground with it. 

THE FILLING PROCESS. 

The corn, having been hauled from the field to the 
silo, has still to be reduced to a fine, homogeneous 
mass, convenient for feeding and economical as far as 
utilization of the silage for feed. 

In order to do this, the whole of the corn, ears and 
all, may be run through an " Ohio" Ensilage Cutter. 

The corn is unloaded on the table of the cutter and 
run through the cutter, after which the carrier or 
blower elevates it to the silo window and delivers it 
into the silo. The length of cutting practiced differs, 
somewhat with different farmers, and with the variety 
of corn to be siloed. The general practice is to cut 
the corn in one-half to one inch lengths. The corn 
will pack better in the silo the finer it is cut, and cat- 
tle will eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut fine, and 
the majorit}^ of farmers filling silos practice cutting 
corn rather fine for the silo. 

*The carriers should deliver the corn as nearly in the 
middle of the silo as possible ; by means of a chute 
attached to the carrier, the cut corn may be delivered 
to any part of the silo desired, and the labor of dis- 
tributing and leveling the corn thus facilitated. A 
simple method of distribution is to attach to the blow- 
er a tube made of a number of sacks sewed together 
with bottoms out, through which the silage will then 
descend. Such a device does not last very long, how- 
ever, as the cut corn soon wears holes through the 
sacks. 

If the corn is siloed "ears and all," it is necessary 
to keep a man or a boy in the silo while it is being fill- 
ed, to level the surface and tramp down the sides and 
corners ; if left to itself, the heavier pieces of ears will 



126 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

be thrown farthest away and the light leaves and tops 
will all come nearest the discharge ; as a result the 
corn will not settle evenly, and the different layers of 
silage wall have a different feeding value. To assist 
in the distribution of the corn, a pyramidal box may 
be hung in front and below the top of the carrier ; 
this may be made about three feet square at the base 
and tapering to a point, at which a rope is attached 
for hanging to rafters. The falling mass of cut corn 
wnll strike the top of the box and be divided so as to 
distribute to all parts of the silo. i\.nother simple de- 
vice is to place a board vertically, or nearly so, in 
front of the top of the carrier, against which the cut 
corn will strike. These devices must be nicely ad- 
justed as to position, however, or they will not be of 
much advantage. 

The Proper Distribution of the Cut Material in the Silo. 

The proper distribution of the cut corn after it has 
been elevated or blown into the silo is a matter which 
should have proper attention at the time of filling. 
If the cut material is allowed to drop all in one place 
and then have no further attention the constant fall- 
ing of the material in one place will tend to make that 
portion solid while the outside will not be so, and be- 
sides the pieces of ears and heavier portions will con- 
tinually roll to the outside. As a result the silage 
cannot settle evenly, and good results will not follow. 
As the filling progresses, the cut material should be 
leveled off and the common and most successful 
practice is to keep the material higher at the sides than 
at the centre and do all the tramping at and close to 
the sides, where the friction of the walls tends to pre- 
vent as rapid settling as takes place at the centre. For 
this reason, no tramping, or at least, as little as 
possible, should be done, except close to the walls. In 
the modern deep silos, the weight of the silage ac- 



SIZE OF CUTTER REQUIRED. 1 27 

complishes more than would any amount of tramping, 
and all that is necessary, is to see that the cut ma- 
terial is rather evenly distributed, for better results in 
feeding, and to assist the settling by some tramping at 
the sides. 

Size of Cutter and Power Required. 

The "Ohio" Cutters are made in a variety of sizes, 
suited to all requirements. 

The cutter used in JSlling the silo should have 
ample capacity to give satisfaction and do the work 
rapidly; a rather large cutter is therefore better than a 
cutter that is barely large enough. The size required 
depends on the rapidity with which it is desired to 
fill the silo and on the power at hand. Where a steam 
engine is available it is the cheapest power for filling 
a large silo, as the w^ork can then be finished in a few 
days. For small farms and silos, where an engine is 
not to be had, a two or three- horse tread-powder may 
be used, but it will be found that the work of filling 
will progress much more slowly than when steam 
power, such as is suitable for thrCvShing, is used. The 
filling may be done as rapidly as possible, or may be 
done slowly, and no harm will result if, for any 
reason, the work be interrupted for some time. More 
silage can be put into a silo with slow, than with rapid 
filling. If the farmer owns his own machine, he can , of 
course, fill his silo, and then refill after the silage has 
settled, so that the silo will be nearly full after all 
settling has taken place. 

If, however, the farmer must depend on hiring an 
outfit, he will wish to do the filling as rapidly as 
possible, as a matter of economy. It is, therefore, 
desirable for the farmer to own his own machine, and 
that being the case, a smaller machine will suffice; 
wherein if the machine be hired the largest possible 
capacity will be desired. 

This has created a demand for various sizes of 



128 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

•cutters, and to meet this demand, the "Ohio" En- 
silage Cutters are made in six sizes, with knives 
•eleven to twenty four inches long, and with Metal 
Bucket Elevators, or Blower Elevators, as desired, 
adaptable to any height of silo. The traveling feed 
table, as supplied on the "Ohio" Cutters is a valuable 
feature, and practically does away with the labor of 
feeding the heavy green corn into the feed rolls, be- 
sides increasing the capacity of the machines about 
one- third, on account of its being so much easier to 
keep the feed rolls supplied. 

The Metal Bucket Elevator, which delivers the cut 
silage corn into the silo through a window or opening 
at the top, must be longer than the silo is high as it is 
necessary to run the carrier at somewhat of an angle, 
(see illustration. Fig. 28). The length of the carrier 
required may be obtained bj- adding about 40 per cent. 
to the perpendicular height from the ground to the 
window; thus, for a 20 ft. silo a 28 ft. carrier is re- 
quired, and for a 30 ft. silo, about 42 ft. of carrier will 
be necessary. 

The Metal Bucket Elevators for the "Ohio" Cut- 
ters are made both straight away and with swivel base, 
which enables the operator to set the cutter in the de- 
sired position, and as the swivel base gives the carrier 
a range of adjustment extending over nearly a half cir- 
cle, the carrier can be run directly to the window, or 
in the case of two silos setting side by side, both can 
be filled with one setting of the cutter. 

The No. 13 "Ohio" Silage Cutter, ^ the number of 
the machine indicates the length of knives and width 
of throat), has a capacit}- of 8 to 12 tons of green corn 
per hour, and requires 4 to 6 horse-power to run it to 
full capacity, although it can be operated successfully 
with less power, b}^ feeding in proportion to the power 
at hand. The 16 and 18 inch and larger sizes of "Ohio" 
Cutters have correspondingly larger capacities, and in 
the case of the larger sizes the amount that can be cut 



ILI.USTRATION. 



129 




Fig. 28, Illustration showing a new stave silo in connection 
ivith an old barn on the Bossert Farm, east of Salem, 
Ohio. The ''Ohio'' Self-Feed Cutter and Metal Bucket 
Elevator are in operation, tlie engine not being shown in 
the photograph. 



I30 



HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 



is only limited by the amount that can be convenient- 
ly gotten to them. The largest sizes can be run by an 
ordinar}' threshing engine. These machines have been 
on the market for upwards of twentj^-five years, and 
have been brought to a wonderful state of perfection. 
For durability, ease and reliability of operation, 
capacity and general utility, they are doubtless the 
most practical means of filling the silo. 

The Nos. 1 6, i8, and 19 "Ohio" Cutters are the 
sizes mostly in use by farmers and dairymen, and the 
travelling feed table, which is long enough to receive 
a bundle of corn, is a most valuable feature, and has 



,4C, 





Fig. 2g. Illustration showing "0///6>" No. ig Blower in 
operation at the New Jersey State Experiment Station, 
New Brunswick, N./., filling the silos there in the fall 
of igo2. 



BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC EI.KVATORS. ^31 

"become almost universal on the ' ' Ohio ' ' machines 
used for silo filling. It decreases the labor of feeding 
and makes any size of machine about equal in capa- 
city to the next size larger without it. 

A new method of elevating the fodder in filling si- 
los, has been introduced by the use of a blower-eleva- 
tor, which blows the cut fodder into the silo through 
a continuous pipe. This device, therefore, takes the 
place of the carrier elevator described above. Blower 
elevators (see illustration of "Ohio" Cutter with 
Blower Elevator, Fig. 29) have been in use to a con- 
siderable extent for two or three 3^ears past, and in the 
opinion of a good many persons the Blower or Exhaust 
Elevator is likely to come into general use in the fu- 
ture, and where sufficient power is available there is no 
difficulty in elevating the cut fodder into the highest 
silos. 

Although the Blower Machines require somewhat 
more power than the older style carrier, there are 
numerous advantages over the metal bucket elevator, 
so that the ' ' Ohio ' ' Blowers are more in demand 
each year, and their popularity is now an assured fact; 
we mention below some of the features that have serv- 
ed to bring this style of the ' ' Ohio ' ' Cutters to the 
notice and favor of farmers and dairymen so rapidly. 

The Blower Machine is quickly set up, taken down 
or moved, as all that is necessary is to remove the 
pipe, which is in sections of various lengths (from 
four to ten feet as desired), which requires but a few 
moments. This operation requires but little time as 
compared with that occupied in setting up or taking 
apart the chain elevator. 

The Blower Machine is clean in operation, placing 
all of the corn in the silo and there is no litter around 
the machine when the filling is finished. 

The action of the fan paddles is such that the corn is 
made much finer, and it therefore packs closer in the 
silo, thus enabling more fodder to be stored in the 



132 HOW TO MAKE SIIvAGE. 

silo; the corn is all knocked off of the pieces of cobs 
and distributed through the cut fodder better, and the 
pieces of the heavy butts and joints are also split and 
knocked to pieces, all of which reduces the silage to a 
fine condition so that it is eaten up cleaner by the 
stock. 

The fan or blower device is also likely to be more 
durable than the chain elevator. 

Being somewhat of a new type of machine, the 
' ' Ohio ' ' Blower is perhaps not as well known as the 
"Ohio" with Chain Elevator, thousands of which 
are in use the world over, to the entire satisfaction of 
their owners. The filling of silos by means of a wind 
blast, doing it as rapidly as the "Ohio" machines cut 
the fodder, is entirely feasible and a successful propo- 
sition, however, and there need be no fear on this 
point if the following points be kept in mind. 

The machines must be run at the proper speed as 
recommended by the manufacturers. A fan can only 
create a sufficient blast b}^ running fast enough to force 
the air through the pipe at the rate of nine to ten 
thousand feet per minute. Green corn is heavy stuff, 
and requires a strong current of air to carry it through 
30 or 40 feet of pipe at the rate of 10 to 20 tons per 
hour. It will be seen, therefore, that unless proper 
speed be maintained there will be no elevation of the 
material whatever. Thus, it will be seen that if the 
power at hand is not sufficient to maintain full speed 
when the cutters are fed to full capacity all that is 
necessary is to feed the machines accordingly, as is 
necessary with other kinds of machinery, such as 
threshing machines, grinding mills etc. 

In setting a Blower Machine it is necessary tb have 
the pipe as nearly perpendicular as possible, so that 
the current of air within the pipe will lift the material. 
This is especially true where the pipe is long, say 20 
feet or more, because the green fodder being heavy 
will settle down on to the lower side of the pipe, if 



CARBONIC ACID GAS IN SILOS 133 

this has much slant, and the wind blast will pass over 
the fodder, thus allowing it to lodge, whereas if the 
pipe be perpendicular, or nearly so, no stoppage will 
occur. It is also necessary to see that full speed is 
attained before beginning to feed the machine, and 
also to stop the feeding while the machine is in full 
motion so that the Blower will have an opportunity to 
clear itself before shutting off the power. 

There must be ample vent in the silo to prevent 
back pressure, as the tremendous volume of air forced 
into the silo with the cut fodder must have some means 
of escape. 

If these few points be kept in mind there can be no 
possible doubt as to the successful operation of the 
blower elevator, and as previously stated, the increas- 
ed demand for the "Ohio" machines is ample evidence 
on this point, and, as stated elsewhere in this volume, 
in the opinion of some of the most prominent dairy- 
men and experiment station officials, blast elevators 
are likely to supersede the chain elevator within a few 
years. 

(N. B. At the end of this volume will be found 
illustrations and descriptions of several sizes and styles 
of "Ohio" cutters, which the reader can refer to, in 
^ addition to the illustrations given here.) 

Danger from Carbo7iic- Acid Poisoning in Silos. — As 
soon as the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbonic- 
acid gas is evolved, and if the silo is shut up tight the 
gas will gradually accumulate directly above the fod- 
der, since it is heavier than air and does not mix with 
it under the conditions given. If a man or an animal 
goes down into this atmosphere, there is great danger 
of asphyxiation, as is the case under similar conditions 
in a deep cistern or well. Poisoning cases from this 
cause have occurred in filling silos where the filling 
has been interrupted for one or more days, and men 
have then gone into the silo to tramp down the cut 
corn. If the doors above the siloed mass are left open 



134 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

when the filling is stopped, and the silo thus ventilat- 
ed, carbonic acid poisoning cannot take place, since 
the gas will then slowly diffuse into the air. Carbonic 
acid being without odor or color, to all appearances 
like ordinary air, it cannot be directly observed, but 
may be readily detected by means of a lighted lantern 
or candle. If the light goes out when lowered into 
the silo there is an accumulation of carbonic acid in 
it, and a person should open feed doors and fan the air 
in the silo before going down into it. 

After the silage is made and the temperature in the 
silo has gone down considerably, there is no further 
evolution of carbonic acid, and therefore no danger in 
entering the silo even if this has been shut up tight. 
The maximum evolution of carbonic acid, and conse- 
quently the danger of carbonic-acid poisoning comes 
during or directly after the filling of the silo. 

Covering the Siloed Fodder. 

Many devices for covering the siloed fodder have 
been recommended and tried, with varying success. 
The original method was to put boards on top of the 
fodder, and to weight them heavily b}^ means of a foot 
layer of dirt or sand, or with stone. The weighting 
having later on been done away with, lighter material, 
as straw, hay, sawdust, etc., was substituted for the 
stone or sand. Building paper was often placed over 
the fodder, and boards on top of the paper. There is 
no special advantage derived from the use of building- 
paper, and it is now never used. Many farmers run 
some corn stalks, or green hnsked fodder, through the 
cutter after the fodder is all in. In the South, cotton- 
seed hulls are easily obtained, and form a ftiost effi- 
cient and cheap cover. 

None of these materials or any other recommended 
for the purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost 
layer of silage, some four to six inches of the top lay- 
er being usually spoilt. Occasionally this spoilt silage 



USE OF WATER IN FILLING SILOS. 1 35 

may not be so bad but that cattle or hogs will eat it 
up nearly clean, but it is at best very poor food, and 
should not be used by any farmer who cares for the 
quality of his products. The wet or green materials 
are better for cover than dry substances, since they 
prevent evaporation of water from the top layer ; when 
this is dry, air will be admitted to the fodder below, 
thus making it possible for putrefactive bacteria and 
molds to continue the destructive work begun by the 
fermentation bacteria, and causing more of the silage 
to spoil. 

Use of Water in Filling Silos. — During late years 
the practice of applying water to the fodder in the silo 
has been followed in a large number of cases. The 
surface is tramped thoroughly and a considerable 
amount of water added. In applying the method at 
the Wisconsin Station, Prof. King, a few days after the 
completion of the filling of the silo, added water to 
the fodder corn at the rate of about ten pounds per 
square foot of surface, repeating the same process 
about ten days afterwards. By this method a sticky, 
almost impervious layer of rotten silage, a couple of 
inches thick, will form on the top, which will prevent 
evaporation of water from the corn below, and will 
preserve all but a few inches of the top. The method 
can be recommended in cases where the corn or clover 
goes into the silo in a rather dry condition, on account 
of drought or extreme hot weather, so as not to pack 
sufficiently by its own weight. While weighting of 
the siloed fodder has long since been done away with, 
it may still prove advantageous to resort to it where 
very dry fodder is siloed, or in case of shallow silos. 
Under ordinary conditions neither weighting nor ap- 
plications of water should be necessary. 

There is only one way in which all of the silage can 
be preserved intact, viz., by beginning to feed the 
silage within a few days after the silo has been filled. 
This method is now practiced by many farmers, espe- 



136 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

cially dairymen, who in this manner supplement scant 
fall pastures. 

By beginning to feed at once from the silo, the silo- 
ing system is brought to perfection, provided the silo 
structure is air-tight, and constructed so as to admit of 
no unnecessary losses of nutrients. Under these con- 
ditions there is a very considerable saving of food ma- 
terials over silage made in poorly-constructed silos, or 
over field-cured shocked fodder corn, as we have al- 
ready seen. 

CLOVER SILAGE. 

Green clover may be siloed whole or cut, but the 
latter method is to be recommended. The clover 
should not be left to wilt between cutting and siloing, 
and the silo should be filled rapidly, so as to cause no 
unnecessary losses by fermentations. 

The different species of clover will prove satisfactory 
silo crops ; ordinary red or medium clover is most used 
in Northwestern States, along with mammoth clover ; 
the latter matures later than medium or red clover, and 
may therefore be siloed later than these. Alfalfa, or 
lucern, is, as previously stated, often siloed in the 
West. Under the conditions present there it will gen- 
erally produce much larger yields than corn, and, pre- 
serv^ed in a silo, will furnish a large supply of most 
valuable feed. Prof. Neale and others recommend the 
use of scarlet clover for summer silage, for Delaware 
and States under similar climatic conditions. 

Says a Canadian dair}^ farmer : "If we were asked 
for our opinion as to what will most help the average 
dairy farmer, I think we should reply : Knowledge of 
a balanced ration, the Babcock test, and a summer 
silo ; then varying the feed of individual animals ac- 
cording to capacity, as shown by scales and close ob- 
servation. ' ' 

CLOVER FOR, SUMMER SILAGE. 

By filling clover into the silo at midsummer, or be- 



CI.OVER FOR SUMMER SILAGE. 1 37 

fore, space is utilized that would otherwise be empty ; 
the silage will, furthermore, be available for feeding 
in the latter part of the summer and during the fall, 
when the pastures are apt to run short. This makes 
it possible to keep a larger number of stock on the 
farm than can be the case if pastures alone are to be 
relied upon, and thus greatly facilitates intensive far- 
ming. Now that stave silos of any size may be easily 
and cheaply put up, it will be found very convenient, 
at least on dairy farms, to keep a small separate silo 
for making clover silage that may be fed out during 
the summer, or at any time simultaneousl}^ with the 
feeding of the corn silage. This extra silo may also 
be used for the siloing of odd lots of forage that may 
happen to be available (see page 60). It is a good 
plan in siloing clover or other comparatively light 
crops in rather small silos, to put a layer of corn on 
top that will weight down the mass below, and secure 
a more thorough packing and thereby al^o a better 
quality of silage. 

In several instances where there has still been a sup- 
ply of clover silage in the silo, green corn has been 
filled in on top of the clover, and the latter has been 
sealed and thus preserved for a number of years. Corn 
silage once settled and "sealed," will also keep per- 
haps indefinitely when left undisturbed in the silo, 
without deteriorating appreciably in feeding value or 
palatability. 

Prof. Cottrell writing for Kansas farmers, says : 
"Silage will keep as long as the silo is not opened, 
and has been kept in good condition for seven years. 
This is a special advantage to Kansas dairymen, as in 
years of heavy crops the surplus can be stored in silos 
for years of drought, making all years good crop 
years for silo dairymen." 

FREEZING OF SILAGE. 

Freezing of silage has sometimes been a source of 



138 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

annoyance and loss to farmers in Northern States, and 
in the future, with the progress of the stave silo, we 
shall most likely hear more about frozen silage than 
we have in the past. As stated in the discussion of ! 

the stave silo, however, the freezing of silage must be • 

considered an inconvenience rather than a positive j 

detriment ; when the silage is thawed out it is eaten \ 

with the same relish by stock as is silage that has never 
been frozen, and apparently with equally good results. 
If frozen silage is not fed out directly after thawed it 
will spoil and soon become unfit to be used for cattle 
food ; thawed silage will spoil much sooner than ordi- 
nary silage that has not been frozen and thawed out. 
There is no evidence that silage which has been frozen * 
and slowly thawed out, is less palatable or nutritious 
than silage of the same kind which had been kept free 
from frost. 

The difficulty of the freezing of silage may be 
avoided by checking the ventilation in the silo and by 
leaving the door to the silo carefully closed in severe 
weather. If the top layer of silage freezes some of 
the warm silage may be mixed with the frozen silage 
an hour or two before feeding time, and all the silage 
will then be found in good condition when fed out. 
A layer of straw may be kept as a cover over the si- 
lage ; this will prevent it from freezing, and is easily 
cleared off when silage is to be taken out. 



CHAPTER V 



HOW TO FEED SILAQE. 



Silage is eaten with a relish by all kinds of farm 
animals, dairy and beef cattle, horses, mules, sheep, 
goats, swine, and even poultr3\ It should never be 
fed as sole roughage to any of these classes of stock, 
however, but always in connection with some dry 
roughage. The nearer maturity the corn is when cut 
for the silo, the more silage may safely be fed at a 
time, but it is always well to avoid feeding it excess- 
ively. 

The silo should alwa3'S be emptied from the top in 
' horizontal layers, and the surface kept level, so as to 
expose as little of the silage as possible to the air. It 
should be fed out sufficiently rapidly to avoid spoiling 
of the silage ; in ordinary Northern winter weather a 
layer a couple of inches deep should be fed off daily. 






-F'i^. 30, Silage Truck. 
SILAGE FOR MILCH COWS. 

Silage is par excellence a cow feed, says Prof. WoU 



140 HOW TO FEED SILAG^. 

in his Book on Silage. Since the introduction of the 
silo in this country, the dairymen, more than any 
other class of farmers, have been among the most en- 
thusiastic siloists, and up to the present time a larger 
number of silos are found in dairy districts than in 
any other regions where animal husbandry is a promi- 
nent industry. As with other farm animals, cows fed 
silage should receive other roughage in the shape of 
corn stalks, hay, etc. The quantities of silage fed 
should not exceed forty, or at the outside, fifty pounds 
per day per head. It is possible that a maximum al- 
lowance of only 25 or 30 pounds per head daily is to 
be preferred where the keeping quality of the milk is 
an important consideration, especially if the silage was 
made from somew^hat immature corn. The silage may 
be given in one or two feeds daily, and, incase of cows 
in milk, always after milking, and not before or dur- 
ing same, as the peculiar silage odor may, in the latter 
case, in our experience reappear in the milk. (See 
below.) 

Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secre- 
tion of milk. Where winter dairying is practiced, 
cows will usually drop considerably in milk towards 
spring, if fed on dry feed, causing a loss of milk 
through the whole remaining portion of the lactation 
period. If silage is fed there will be no such marked 
decrease in the flow of milk before turning out to grass, 
and the cows will be able to keep up well in milk un- 
til late in summer, or early in the fall, w^hen they are 
dried up prior to calving. Silage has a similar effect 
on the milk secretion as green fodder or pasture, and 
if made from well-matured corn, is more like these 
feeds than any other feed the farmer can produce. 

The feeding of silage to milch cows has sometimes 
been objected to when the milk was intended for the 
manufacture of certain kinds of cheese, or of condens- 
ed milk, and there are instances where such factories 
have enjoined their patrons from feeding silage to 



SILAGE FOR "certified MILK." 14 1 

their cows. When the silage is properly prepared and 
properly fed, there can be no foundation whatever for 
this injunction ; it has been repeatedly demonstrated 
that Swiss cheese of superior quality can be made 
from the milk of silage-fed cows, and condensing fac- 
tories among whose patrons silage is fed have been 
able to manufacture a superior product. The qualily 
of the silage made during the first dozen years of silo 
experience in this country was very poor, being sour 
and often spoilt in large quantities, and, what may 
have been still more important, it was sometimes fed 
in an injudicious manner, cows being made to subsist 
on this feed as sole roughage. Under these conditions 
it is only natural that the quality of the milk should 
be impaired, and that manufacturers preferred to en- 
tirel}^ prohibit the use of it rather than to teach their 
patrons to follow proper methods in the making and 
feeding of silage. There is an abundance of evidence 
at hand showing that good silage fed in moderate 
quantities will produce an excellent quality of both 
butter and cheese. According to the testimony of 
butter experts, silage not only does not injure the 
flavor of butter, but better-flavored butter is produced 
\)y judicious silage feeding than can be made from dry 
feed. 

Silage in the production of ^'certified milk.'''' — In an- 
swer to a question raised wdiether there is any objec- 
tion made to the milk when the cows are fed silage, 
Mr. H. B. Gurler, the well-known Illinois dairyman, 
whose certified milk sent to the Paris Exposition in 
1900, kept sweet for one month without having any 
preservatives added to it, and was awarded a gold 
medal, gave the following information: "No, there 
is not. I have had persons who knew I was feeding 
silage imagine they could taste it. I caught one of the 
leading Chicago doctors a while ago. He imagined 
that he could taste silage in the milk, and I was not 
feeding it at all. When I» first went into the business 



142 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

I did not feed any silage to the cows from which the 
certified milk was produced. I knew it was all right 
for butter making, as I had made butter from the 
milk of cows fed with silage, and sent it to New York 
in competition with butter made from dry food, and it 
proved to be the finer butter of the two. The first 
winter I had samples sent down to my family in De 
Kalb from the stable where we fed silage and from the 
stable where we were making the certified milk for 
Chicago, and in which we fed no silage. I presume I 
made one hundred comparative tests that winter of the 
milk from these two stables. My wife and daughter 
could not tell the difference between the two samples. 
In the large majority of cases they would select the 
milk from the cows fed silage as the sweeter milk." 

It will serve as an illustration of the general use of 
silage among progressive dairymen in our country, to 
state that of one hundred farmers furnishing the feed 
rations fed to their dairy cows, in an investigation of 
this subject conducted by Prof. Woll in 1894, sixty- 
four w^ere feeding silage to their stock, this feed being 
used a larger number of times than any other single 
cattle food, wheat bran only excepted. 

The combinations in which corn silage will be used 
in feeding milch cows will depend a good deal on local 
conditions ; it may be said in general that it should be 
supplemented by a fair proportion of nitrogenous feeds 
like clover hay, wheat bran, ground oats, linseed meal, 
gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, etc. As it may be of 
some help to our readers a number of balanced rations 
or such as are near enough balanced to produce good 
results at the pail, are presented below. 

Silage Rations for Milch Cows. 

No. I. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 8 lbs. ; wheat 

bran, 4 lbs. ; ground oats, 3 lbs. ; oil meal, 2 lbs. 

No. 2. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; corn stalks, 10 lbs. ; 



SILAGE RATIONS. 143 

corn meal, 2 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; malt 
sprouts, 3 lbs. ; oil meal, i lb. 
No. 3. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; clover and timothy 
mixed, 10 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 3 lbs. ; gluten feed, 

3 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 3 lbs. 

No. 4. Corn silage, 20 lbs. ; corn stalks, 10 lbs. ; hay 

4 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; gluten meal, 3 lbs. ; 
ground oats, 3 lbs. 

No. 5. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; oat 

feed, 4 lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; gluten feed, 3 lbs. 
No. 6. Corn silage, 45 lbs. ; corn stalks, 5 lbs. ; oat 

straw, 5 lbs. ; dried brewers' grains, 4 lbs. ; wheat 

shorts, 4 lbs. 
No. 7. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 10 lbs. ; corn meal, 

3 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; oats, 3 lbs. 
No. 8. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; corn stover, 8 lbs. ; 

wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; oil meal, 

2 lbs. 
No. 9. Corn silage, 20 lbs. ; clover and timothy hay, 

15 lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; ground oats, 3 lbs. ; 

oil meal, 2 lbs. ; cotton seed meal, i lb. 
No. 10. Clover silage, 25 lbs. ; corn stover, 10 lbs. ; 

hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. ; oat feed, 4 lbs.; 

corn meal, 2 lbs. 
No. II. Clover silage, 30 lbs. ; dry fodder corn, 10 

lbs. ; oat straw, 4 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; malt 

sprouts, 2 lbs. ; oil meal 2 lbs. 
No. 12. Clover silage, 40 lbs. ; hay, 10 lbs. ; roots, 

20 lbs. ; corn meal, 4 lbs. ; ground oats, 4 lbs. 

The preceding rations are only intended as approxi- 
mate guides in feeding dairy cows. Every dairy far- 
mer knows that there are hardly two cows that will 
act in exactly the same manner and will need exactly 
the same amount of feed. It is then important to 
adapt the quantities and kinds of feed given to the 
special needs of the different cows ; one cow will fat- 
ten on corn meal, where another will be able to eat 



144 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

and make good use of two or three quarts of it. In 
the same way some cows will eat more roughage than 
others and do equally well on it as those that get more 
of the food in the form of more concentrated and 
highly digestible feeding stuffs. The only safe rule 
to go by is to feed according to the different needs of 
the cows ; to study each cow and find out how much 
food she can take care of without laying on flesh, and 
how she responds to the feeding of foods of different 
character, like wheat, bran, and corn meal, for in- 
stance. The specimen rations given in the preceding 
can, therefore, only be used to show the average 
amounts of common feeds which a good dairy cow 
can take in and give proper returns for. 

The popularity of the silo with owners of dairy 
cattle has increased very greatly, says Prof. Plumb. 
Few owners of stock of this class, who have properly- 
built silos, and well-preserved silage, would discard 
silage as an adjunct to feeding. Silage certainly pro- 
motes milk flow. One great argument in favor of its 
use lies in the cheapness of production per ton, and 
the ability to store and secure a palatable, nutritious 
food in weather conditions that would seriously injure 
hay or dry fodder. 

There is one important point that owners of milk 
cattle should bear in mind, and that is when the silo 
is first opened only a small feed should be given. In 
changing from grass or dry feed to silage, if a regular 
full ration is given, the silage will perhaps slightly af- 
fect the taste of the milk for a few milkings, and if 
the change is from dry feed it may cause too great 
activity of the bowels. 

SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE. 

Silage may be fed with advantage to beef cattle, in 
moderate quantities, up to about forty pounds a daj^ 
The health of the animals and the quality of the beef 
produced on moderate silage feeding, leave nothing to 



SII.AGK FOR BEEF CATTI.E. 145 

be wished for. If the silage is made from immature 
corn care must be taken not to feed too large quanti- 
ties at the start, and to feed carefully, so as not to 
make the animals scour. Prof. Henry says in regard 
to the value of silage for fattening steers : " As with 
roots, silage makes the carcass watery and soft to the 
touch. Some have considered this a disadvantage, 
but is it not a desirable condition in the fattening 
steer ? Corn and roughage produce a hard dry car- 
cass, and corn burns out the digestive tract in the 
shortest possible time. With silage and roots, diges- 
tion certainly must be more nearly normal, and its 
profitable action longer continued. The tissues of the 
body are juicy, and the whole system must be in just 
that condition which permits rapid fattening. While 
believing in a large use of silage in the preliminary 
stages, and its continuance during most of the fatten- 
ing period, I would recommend that gradually more 
dry food be substituted as the period advances, in order 
that the flesh may become more solid. Used in this 
way, I believe silage will become an important aid in 
steer feeding in man}^ sections of the country. Results 
from Canada, Wisconsin, and Texas experiment sta- 
tions show the broad adaptation of this food for stock 
feeding purposes." 

Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full 
grown ones, with the same restrictions and precautions 
as given for steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas 
Station suggests that corn silage is not a fit food for 
breeding bulls, unless fed a few pounds only as a rel- 
ish ; fed heavily on silage, bulls are said to lose virility 
and become slow and uncertain breeders. 

SILAGE FOR HORSES. 

When fed in small quantities, not to exceed fifteen 
pounds a day, silage is a good food for horses. It 
should be fed twice a day, a light feed being given at 
first and gradually increased as the animals become 



146 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

accustomed to the food. Some farmers feed it mixed 
with cut straw, two-thirds of straw, and one-third of 
silage, and feed all horses will eat of this mixed feed. 
Some horses object to silage at first on account of its 
peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on 
top of the silage and feeding only very small amounts 
to begin with, they soon learn to eat and relish it. 
Other horses take it willingh' from the beginning. 
Horses not working may be fed larger quantities than 
work horses, but in neither case should the silage form 
more than a portion of the coarse feed fed to the 
horses. Silage-fed horses will look Avell and come out 
in the spring in better condition than when fed almost 
any other food. 

Professor Cook saA-s in regard to silage as a horse 
food: " It has been suggested b}' even men of high 
scientific attainments that silage is pre-eminently the 
food for cattle and not for other farm stock. This is 
certainl}^ a mistake. If we raise fall colts, which I find 
very profitable, then silage is just what we need, and 
will enable us to produce colts as excellent as though 
dropped in the spring. This gives us our brood mares 
in first-class trim for the hard summer's work. I find 
silage just as good for young colts and other horses." 

An extensive Michigan farmer and horse breeder, 
gives his experience in regard to silage for horses as 
follows : ' ' Last winter we had nearly two hundred 
horses, including Ch'desdales, standard-bred trotters, 
and Shetland ponies. The}^ were wintered entirely 
upon straw and corn silage, and this in face of the fact 
that I had read a long article in a prominent horse 
journal cautioning farmers from the use of silage, and 
■citing instances where man}- animals had died, and 
brood mares had aborted from the liberal use of corn 
:silage. 

" Desiring to test the matter to the fullest extent, 
•our stallions and brood mares, as well as all the young 
stock, were fed two full rations of silage daily, and 



SII.AGK FOR HORSES. 1 47 

one liberal ration of wheat or oat straw. The result 
with our brood mares was most phenomenal, for we 
now have to represent every mare that was then in foal 
on the farm, a weanling, strong and vigorous, and ap- 
parentl}" right in every way, with only one exception, 
where the colt was lost by accident. Of course there 
may have been something in the season more favorable 
than usual, but this was the first j^ear in my experi- 
ence when every colt dropped on the farm was saved.'* 

The following experience as to the value of silage 
as a food for horse and other farm animals comes from 
the Ohio Station: "Our silo was planned and filled 
with special reference to our dairy stock, but after 
opening the silo we decided to try feeding the silage 
to our horses, calves, and hogs. The result was 
eminently satisfactory. We did not find a cow, calf, 
horse, colt, or hog that refused to eat, or that did not 
eat it with apparent relish, not only for a few days, 
but for full two months. The horses were given one 
feed of twenty pounds each per day in place of the 
usual amount of hay, for tlie period above name'd, and 
it was certainly a benefit. Their appetites were 
sharpened, and the healthfulness of the food was. 
further manifest in the new coat of hair which came 
with the usual spring shedding. The coat was glossy,, 
the skin loose, and the general appearance was that 
of horses running upon pasture.'' 

Doctor Bailey states that silage has as good an effect 
on work and driving horses as an occasional feed of 
carrots or other roots, and Rew informs us that there 
is a demand for silage in Loudon and other English 
cities, especially for omnibus, cab, and tram horses. 
According to the testimony of Mr. H. J. Elwes, the 
cart horses fed silage "looked in better condition and 
brighter in their coats than usual at this time of the 
year." 

From experiments conducted at Virginia Station, 
Prof. Nourse concluded that "it would appear that 



148 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

silage would make a good roughage for horses, when 
used iu connection with hay or stover or grain, 
but that these animals should become accustomed to 
the food b}^ degrees, and that this is as important as 
when changing from old to new corn, or from hay to 
grass. ' ' 

What has been said about silage as a food for horses 
will most likely apply equally well to mules, although 
only very limited experience has so far been gained 
with silage for this class of farm animals. 

Silage for Sheep. 

Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep 
men, says Prof . Woll in his book on Silage; sheep do 
well on it, and silage- fed ewes drop their lambs in the 
spring without trouble, the lambs being strong and 
vigorous. Silage containing a good deal of corn is not 
well adapted for breeding stock, as it is too fattening; 
for fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in 
the silage is an advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple 
of pounds of silage a day and not to exceed five or six 
pounds per head. Professor Cook reports as follows 
in regard to the value of silage for sheep: "I have 
fed ensilage liberally to sheep for three winters and 
am remarkably pleased with the results. I make 
ensilage half the daily ration, the other half being 
corn stalks, or timothy hay, with bran or o>ats. The 
sheep do exceedingly well. Formerly I was much 
troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino ewes. Of 
late this trouble has almost ceased. Last spring I 
hardly lost a lamb. While ensilage may not be the 
entire cause of the change, I believe it is the main 
cause. It is positively proved that ensilage is a most 
valuable food material, when properly fed, for all our 
domestic animals." 

Mr. J. S. Woodward, a well-known New York 
farmer and Farmers' Institue worker, who has made 
a specialty of early-lamb raising, says, in an address 



SILAGE FOR SHEEP. I49 

before the New York Agricultural Society, regarding 
silage as feed for lambs: "In order to be successful 
in raising fine lambs it is imperative that the ewes and 
lambs both should have plenty of succulent food. 
Nothing can supply the deficiency. For this purpose 
roots of almost any kind are good. Turnips, rutabagas, 
mangolds are all good. Corn silage is excellent. 
Could I have my choice I would prefer both silage 
and roots. If I were depending on silage alone for 
succulent food I would give four pounds per hundred 
pounds live weight of sheep, all at one feed, at the 
forenoon feed; but when feeding both silage and roots 
I would feed silage in the morning and roots in the 
afternoon. ' ' 

Mr. J. M. Turner of Michigan says concerning 
silage for sheep: "Of late years we have annually 
put up 3,200 tons of corn ensilage, and this has been 
the principal ration of all the live stock at Springdale 
Farm, our Shropshire sheep having been maintained 
on a ration of ensilage night and morning, coupled 
with a small ration of clover hay in the middle of 
the day. This we found to fully meet the require- 
ments of our flock until after lambing, from which 
time forward we of course added liberal rations of 
wheat bran, oats, and old-process linseed meal to the 
ewes, with a view of increasing their flow of milk and 
bringing forward the lambs in the most vigorous 
possible condition. Our flock-master was somewhat 
anxious until after the lambs dropped, but now 
that he saved 196 lambs from 122 ewes, his face is 
wreathed in smiles, and he gives the ensilage system 
the strongest endorsement." Mr. Turner states that, 
after becoming accustomed to the silage, his horses, 
cattle, and sheep would all push their noses down 
through the hay, if there was silage at the bottom of 
the manger, and little or no hay would be eaten until 
the silage was first taken. 
' The following interesting experience illustrating 



150 HOW TO FKED SILAGE. 

the value of silage for sheep feeding is given by Mr. 
William Woods, a celebrated English breeder of 
Hampshire-Downs: "Last year, in August, I found 
myself with a flock of some 1,200 Hampshire-Down 
ewes, and about twelve or fourteen acres of swedes, 
on a farm of 4,000 acres, and these were all the roots 
there were to feed them and their lambs during the 
winter. Knowing how we should suffer from want of 
milk after lambing in January and February, I thought 
I would try (which no doubt has often been tried else- 
where, though not in this district) the effect of en- 
silage on ewes after lambing, having learned by hear- 
say that it increased the milk of cows nearly 30 per 
cent. I at once set to work to irrigate what w^ater 
meadows I could spare, and in the month of October 
had a crop of grass that, had it been possible to make 
it into hay, would have made a ton of hay to the acre. 
I bought from the Aylesbury Dairy Company one of 
their Johnson's ensilage lick presses, and put some 
seventy to eighty tons of cut meadow grass under 
pressure. It must, however, be borne in mind that 
second cut water meadow grass is some of the poorest 
stuff that is consumed, either green or in hay, and, 
therefore, my ensilage was not as good, and con- 
sequently not as favorable a trial, as if it had been 
made of better material. 

"In January, when well into lambing, I opened the 
stack, and began to feed it to the ewes that had 
lambed. At first they hardly cared to eat it, but by 
degrees they seemed to like it more. They had a 
night and morning meal of best sainfoin hay, and a 
small lot of ensilage with the cake given at midday. 
After three weeks' trial, what the shepherd observed 
was this: That when best sainfoin hay worth £^ a 
ton, was put in the cages, and ensilage in the troughs 
at the same time, half the sheep would go to the hay 
and half to the ensilage, although there was sufficient 
accommodation for the whole flock at either sort, and 



SIIvAGK FOR SWINE. 151 

we now observe that with the ewes that are most con- 
stant to the ensilage, their lambs are nourished better 
than the others. We have not lost a single lamb from 
scours, and have some 470 lambs from 380 ewes lambed 
as yet, which I think proves the value of the experi- 
ment. As soon as the stuff arrives in carts the ewes 
are crazy for it, and almost come over the hurdles, so 
eager are they to get at this new sort of feed, which, 
as I have stated, is only water meadow^ grass en- 
silaged." 

Silage for Swine. 

The testimony concerning the value of silage as a 
food for swine is conflicting, both favorable and un- 
favorable reports being at hand. Many farmers have 
tried feeding it to their hogs, but without success. On 
the other hand, a number of hog- raisers have had 
good success with silage, and feed it regularly to their 
swine. It is possible that the differences in the 
quality of the silage and of the methods of feeding 
practiced explain the diversity of opinions formed 
concerning silage as hog food. According to Professor 
Cook, Col. F. D. Curtiss, the great American 
authority on the swine industry, states that silage is 
valuable to add to the winter rations of our swine. 
Mr. J. W. Pierce of Indiana writes in regard to silage 
for hogs: "We have fed our sows, about twenty-five 
in number, for four winters, equal parts of ensilage 
and corn meal put into a cooker, and brought up to a 
steaming state. It has proved to be very beneficial 
to them. It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows 
that are nursing the young, equal to when they 
are running on clover. We find, too, when the pigs 
are farrowed, they become more robust, and take to 
nursing much sooner and better than they did in 
winters when fed on an exclusively dry diet. We al- 
so feed it to our sheep. To sixty head we put out 
about six bushels of ensilage." Dr. Bailey, the author 



152 HOW TO FEED SIIvAGE. 

of ''The Book on Ensilage," fed large hogs ten 
pounds of silage, and one pound of wheat bran, with 
good results; the cost of the ration did not exceed 2 
cents per day. He states that clover silage would be 
excellent, and would require no additional grain. 
Young pigs are exceedingly fond of the silage. Feed- 
ing experiments conducted at Virginia Experiment 
Station show that silage is an economical maintenance 
feed for hogs, when fed in connection with corn, but 
not when fed alone. 

In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to 
feed only very little, a pound or so, at the start, mix- 
ing it with corn meal, shorts, or other concentrated 
feeds. The diet of the hog should be largely made 
up of easily digested grain food; bulky, coarse feeds 
like silage can only be fed to advantage in small 
quantities, not to exceed three or four pounds per 
head, per day. As in case of breeding ewes, silage 
will give good results when fed with care to brood 
sows, keeping the system in order, and producing a 
good flow of milk. 

Silage for Poultry, 

But little experience is at hand as to the use of 
silage as a poultry food; some farmers however, are 
feeding a little silage to their poultry with good suc- 
cess. Only small quantities should of course be fed, 
and it is beneficial as a stimulant and a regulator, as 
much as a food. A poultry raiser writes as follows in 
Orange Judd Fanner, concerning his experience in 
making and feeding silage to fowls. Devices similar 
to that here described have repeatedly been explained 
in the agricultural press. "Clover and corn silage 
is one of the best winter foods for poulty raisers. Let 
me tell you how to build four silos for $1. Buy four 
coal-oil barrels at the drug store, burn them out on 
the inside, and take the heads out. Go to the clover 
field when the second crop of the small June clover i^ 



CORN SII.AGE VS. ROOT CROPS. 1 53 

in the bloom, and cut one-half ton three-eights of an 
inch in length, also one-half ton of sweet corn, and 
run this through the feed cutter. Put into the barrel 
a layer of clover, then a layer of corn. Having done 
this, take a common building jack-screw and press the 
silage down as firmly as possible. Then put 'on this 
a very light sprinkling of pulverized charcoal, and 
keep on putting in clover and corn until you get the 
barrel as full as will admit of the cover being put back. 
After your four barrel silos are filled, roll them out 
beside the barn, and cover them with horse manure, 
allowing them to remain there thirty days. Then put 
them away, covering with cut straw or hay. When 
the cold, chilling winds of December come, open one of 
these 'poultrymen's silos,' take about twenty pounds 
for one hundred hens, add equal parts of potatoes, 
ground oats, and winter rye, place same in a kettle 
and bring to a boiling state. Feed warm in the morn- 
ing, and the result will be that you will be enabled to 
market seven or eight dozen eggs per day from one 
hundred hens through the winter, when eggs bring 
good returns." 

ADDITION AI, TESTIMONY AS TO THE VAI^UK OF SIIyAGE. 

Corn Silage co-mpared with root crops. — Root crops 
are not grown to any large extent in this country, but 
occasionally an old-country farmer is met with who 
grows roots for his stock, because his father did so, 
and his grandfather and great-grandfather before him. 
This is what a well-known English writer, R. Henry 
Rew, says as to the comparative value of roots and 
silage, from the standpoint of an English farmer : 

** The root crop has, for about a century and a half, 
formed the keystone of arable farming ; yet it is the 
root crop whose position is most boldly challenged by 
silage. No doubt roots are expensive — say ;^io per 
acre as the cost of producing an ordinary crop of tur- 
nips — and precarious, as the experience of the winter 



154 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

of 1887-8 has once more notably exemplified in many 
parts of the country. In a suggestive article in the 
Farming World Almanac for 1888 Mr. Primrose 
McConnell discusses the question : ' Are Turnips a 
Necessary Crop ? ' and sums up his answer in the fol- 
lowing definite conclusion : 

" 'Everything, in short, is against the use of roots, 
either as a cheap and desirable food for any kind of 
live stock, as a crop suited for the fallow break, which 
cleans the land at little outlay, or as one which pre- 
serves or increases the fertility of the vSoil.' 

* ' If the growth of turnips is abandoned or restrict- 
ed ensilage comes in usually to assist the farmer in 
supplying their place. . . When one comes to com- 
pare the cultivation of silage crops with that of roots, 
there are two essential points in favor of the former. 
One is their smaller expense, and the other is their 
practical certainty. The farmer who makes silage can 
make certain of his winter store of food, whereas he 
who has only his root crop may find himself left in the 
lurch at a time when there is little chance of making 
other provision." 

We have accurate information as to the yields and 
cost of production of roots and corn silage in this 
country from a number of American Experiment Sta- 
tions. This shows that the tonnage of green or suc- 
culent feed per acre is not materially different in case 
of the two crops, generally speaking. But when the 
quantities of dry matter harvested in the crop are con- 
sidered, the corn has been found to yield about twnce 
as much as the ordinary root crops. According to 
data published by the Pennsylvania Station, the cost 
of an acre of beets in the pit amounts to about $56, 
and of an acre of corn in the silo about $21, only half 
the quantities of food materials obtained, and at more 
than double cost. 

When the feeding of these two crops has been de- 
termined, as has been the case in numerous trials at 



CORN SILAGK COMPARED WITH HAY. 1 55 

experiment stations, it has been found that the dry 
matter of beets certainly has no higher, and in many 
cases has been found to have a lower value than that 
of corn silage ; the general conclusion to be drawn, 
therefore, is that "beets cost more to grow, harvest 
and store, yield less per acre, and produce at best no 
more and no better milk or other farm products than 
corn silage." 

Corn silage compared with hay. A ton and a half of 
hay per acre is generally considered a good average 
crop in humid regions. Since hay contains sbout 86 
per cent, dry matter, a crop of 1^2 tons means 2,580 
pounds of dry matter. Against this yield we have 
yields of 5,000 to 9,000 pounds of dry matter, or twice 
to three and a half times as much, in case of fodder 
corn. An average crop of green fodder will weigh 
twelve tons, of Northern varieties, and eighteen tons, 
of Southern varieties. Estimating the percentage of 
dry matter in the former at 30 per cent, and in the 
latter at 20 per cent, we shall have in either case a 
yield of 7,200 pounds of dry matter. If we allow for 
10 per cent, of loss of dry matter in the silo there is 
still 6,500 pounds of dry matter to be credited to the 
corn. The expense of growing the corn crop is, of 
course, higher than that of growing hay, but by no 
means sufficiently so to offset the larger 3'ields. It is 
a fact generally conceded by all who have given the 
subject any study, that the hay crop is the most ex- 
pensive crop used for the feeding of our farm animals. 

The late Sir John B. Lawes, of Rothamsted Ex- 
periment Station (England) said, respecting the 
relative value of hay and (grass) silage: "It is 
probable that when both (i. e. , hay and silage) are of 
the very best quality that can be made, if part of the 
grass is cut and placed in a silo, and another part is 
secured in the stack without rain, one might prove as 
good food as the other. But it must be borne in mind 
that while the production of good bay is a matter of 



156 HOW TO FEED SILAGK. 

uncertainty — from the elements of success being be- 
yond the control of the farmer — good silage, by taking 
proper precautions, can be made with a certainty." 

A few feeding experiments with corn silage vs. hay 
will be mentioned in the following. 

In an experiment with milch cows conducted at the 
New Hampshire Station, the silage ration, containing 
16.45 pounds of digestible matter, produced 21.0 
pounds of milk, and the hay ration, containing 16.83 
pounds digestible matter, produced 18.4 pounds milk; 
calculating the quantities of milk produced by 100 
pounds of digestible matter in either case, we find on 
the silage ration 127.7 pounds of milk, on the hay 
ration, 109.3 pounds, or 17 per cent, in favor of the 
silage ration. 

In a feeding experiment with milch cows at the 
Maine Station, in which silage likewise was compared 
with hay, the addition of silage to the ration resulted 
in a somewhat increased production of milk solids, 
which was not caused by an increase in the digestible 
food materials eaten, but which must have been due 
either to the superior value of the nutriments of the 
silage over those of the hay or to the general 
physiological effect of feeding a greater variety of 
foods. 8.8 pounds of silage proved to be somewhat 
superior to 1.98 pounds of hay (mostly timothy), 
the quantity of digestible material being the same in 
the two cases. 

In another experiment, conducted at the same 
station,, where silage was compared with hay for steers, 
a pound of digestible matter from the corn silage pro- 
duced somewhat more growth than a pound of 
digestible matter from timothy hay. The difference 
was small, however, amounting in the case of the last 
two periods, where the more accurate comparison is 
possible, to an increased growth of only 15 pounds of 
live weight for each ton of silage fed. 

Corn Silage compared with fodder corn. The cost of 



CORN SII.AGE AND FODDER CORN. 1 57 

production is the same for the green fodder up to the 
time of siloing, incase of both systems; as against the 
expense of siloing the crop comes that of shocking, 
and later on, placing the fodder under shelter in the 
field-curing process; further husking, cribbing, and 
grinding the corn, and cutting the corn stalks, since 
this is the most economical way of handling the crop, 
and the only way in which it can be fully utilized so 
as to be of as great value as possible for dry fodder. 
Professor King, found the cost of placing corn in the 
silo to be 58.6 cents per ton, on the average for five 
Wisconsin farms, or, adding to this amount, interest 
and taxes on silo investment, and insurance and 
maintenance of silo per ton, 73.2 cents. The expense 
of shocking and sheltering the cured fodder and, later 
cutting the same, will greatly exceed that of siloing 
the crop; to obtain the full value in feeding the ear 
corn, it must, furthermore, in most cases, be ground, 
costing 10 cents or more a bushel of 70 lbs. The ad- 
vantage is, therefore, decidedly with the siloed fodder 
in economy of handling, as well as in the cost of pro- 
duction. 

• The comparative feeding value of corn silage and 
fodder corn has been determined in a large number of 
trials at different experiment stations. The earlier 
ones of these experiments were made with only a 
couple of animals each, and no reliance can, therefore, 
be placed on the results obtained in any single ex- 
periment. In the later experiments a larger number 
of cows have been included, and these have been con- 
tinued for sufficiently long time to show what the 
animals could do on each feed. 

A few experiments illustrating the value of silage 
as a stock food may be quoted. Prof. Henry fed two 
lots of steers on a silage experiment. One lot of four 
steers was fed corn silage exclusively, and another 
similar lot corn silage with shelled corn. The former 
lot gained 222 pounds in thirty-six days, and the latter 



158 HOW TO FEED SIIv AGE. 

lot 535 pounds, or a gain of 1.5 pounds per da}' per 
head for the silage-fed steers, and 3.7 pounds per day 
for the silage and shelled- corn fed steers. Prof. Emery 
fed corn silage and cotton-seed meal, in the proportion 
of eight to one, to two three-3'ear-old steers, at the 
North Carolina Experiment Station. The gain made 
during thirty-two days was, for one steer 78 pounds, 
and for the other 85.5 pounds, or 2.56 pounds per head 
per day. 

The late well-known Wisconsin dairyman, Hon. 
Hiram Smith, in 1888 gave the following testimony 
concerning the value of silage for milch cows : " My 
silo was opened December ist, and thirty pounds of 
ensilage was fed to each of the ninety cows for the 
night's feed, or 2,700 pounds perda}-, until March 10, 
one hundred days, or a total of 135 tons, leaving suf- 
ficient ensilage to last until May loth. The thirty 
pounds took and well filled the place of ten pounds of 
good hay. Had hay been fed for the night's feed in 
place of the ensilage, it would have required 900 
pounds per day for the ninety cows, or a total for the 
one hundred days of forty- five tons. 

''It would have required, in the year 1887, forty- 
five acres of meadow to have produced the ha}', which, 
if bought or sold, would have amounted to $14.00 per 
acre. The 135 tons of ensilage were produced on S% 
acres of land, and had a feeding value, as compared 
with hay, of $74.11 per acre." As the conclusion of 
the whole matter, Mr. Smith stated that ' ' three cows 
can be wintered seven months on one acre producing 
16 tons of ensilage, while it required two acres of mead- 
ow in the same 3^ear of 1887, to winter o?ie cow, with 
the same amount of ground feed in both cases. 

Professor Shelton, formerly of Kansas Agricultural 
College, gives a powerful plea for silage in the follow- 
ing simple statement : ' ' The single fact that the pro- 
duct of about two acres of ground kept our herd of 
fifty head of cattle five weeks with no other feed of the 



CONCLUDING TESTIMONY. 1 59 

fodder kind, except a small ration of corn fodder given 
at noon, speaks whole cyclopedias for the possibilities 
of Kansas fields when the silo is called in as an ad- 
junct." 

In conclusion. We will bring our discussions of the 
silo and its importance in American agriculture, to a 
close by quoting the opinions of a few recognized lead- 
ers on agricultural matters as the value of silo and 
silage : 

Says Ex-Gov. Hoard, the editor of Hoard's Dairy- 
man, and a noted dairy lecturer: " For dairying all 
the year around the silo is almost indispensable. ' ' 

Prof, Hills, the director of Vermont Experiment 
Station : "It was long ago clearly shown that the 
most economical farm-grown carboliydrates raised in 
New England are derived from the corn plant, and 
that they are more economically preserved for cattle 
feeding in the silo than in an}^ other way. ' ' 

H. C. Wallace, editor Creamer}^ Gazette : ' ' While 
not an absolute necessity, the silo is a great conve- 
nience in the winter, and in times of protracted dry- 
ness almost a necessity in summer. ' ' 

Prof. Carlyle, of Wisconsin Agricultural College : 
"A silo is a great labor-saving device for preserving 
the cheapest green fodder in the best form." 

C. P. Goodrich, conductor of Farmers' Institutes in 
Wisconsin, and a well-known lecturer and authority 
on dairy topics : "A farmer can keep cows profitably 
without a silo, but he can make more profit with one, 
because he can keep his cows with less expense and 
they will produce more. ' ' 

Prof. Dea7i, of Ontario Agricultural College : " The 
silo is becoming a greater necessity every year in On- 
tario." 

Thus it will be seen that from all parts of the world 
wherever the silo is in. use, the evidence points in favor 
of silage, there no longer being an argument against 



l6o HOW TO FEED SII.AGE. 

it, in connection with the dairy, and especially in lati- 
tudes where corn can be grown. 

Economy in production of feed materials means in- 
creased profits. Competition establishes the price at 
which the farmer and dairyman must market his prod- 
ucts, but by the study of approved and modern meth- 
ods the farmer can regulate his profits. 



CHAPTER VI. 

A feeders' guide. 

It has been thought best, in order to increase the 
u.sefulness of this Httle book to practical farmers, to 
add to the specific information ,siven in the preceding 
as to the making and feeding of silage, a brief general 
outline of the main principles that should govern the 
feeding of farm animals. This will include a state- 
ment of the character of the various components of 
the feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of farm stock, 
with tables of composition, and a glossary of scientific 
agricultural terms often met with in agricultural pa- 
pers, experiment station reports, and similar publica- 
tions. Man}^ of these terms are used constantl}^ in 
discussion of agricultural topics, and unless the farmer 
has a fairly clear idea of their meaning the discussions 
will often be of no value to him. The information 
given in the following is put in as plain and simple 
language as possible, and only such facts are given as 
are considered of fundamental importance to the feed- 
er of farm stock. 

COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 

The most important components of the animal body 
are: water, ash, protein, and fat. We shall briefly 
describe these components. 

Water is found in larger quantities in the animal 
body than any other substance. It makes up for about 
a third to nearly two-thirds of the live weight of farm 
animals. The fatter the animal is the less water is 
found in its body . We may consider 50 per cent of 
the body weight a general average for the water con- 
tent of the body of farm animals. When it comes to 



1 62 A feeders' guide. 

animal products used for food purposes, there are wide 
variations in the water content ; from between 80 and 
90 per cent in case of milk, to between 40 and 60 per 
cent in meat of various kinds, about 1 2 per cent in 
butter, and less than 10 per cent in fat salt pork. 

Ash or mineral matter is that portion of the animal 
body which remains behind when the body is burned. 
The bones of animals contain large quantities of min- 
eral matter while the muscles and other parts of the 
body contain only small amounts ; it mUvSt not be con- 
cluded, however, that the ash materials are of minor 
importance for this reason ; both the young and full 
grown animal require a constant supply of ash mate- 
rials in their food ; if the food should not contain a 
certain minimum amount of ash materials, and of vari- 
ous compounds contained therein which are essential 
to life, the animal will turn sick very soon, and if the 
deficiency is not made up will die, no matter how 
much of other food components is supplied. As both 
ash and water are either present in sufficient quantities 
in feeding stuffs, or can be easily supplied, the feeder 
does not ordinarily need to give much thought to these 
components in the selection of foods for his stock. 

Protein is not the name of any single substance, but 
for a large group of very complex substances that have 
certain characteristics in common, the more important 
of which is that the}' all contain the element nitrogen. 
Hence these substances are also known as nitrogenous 
components. The most important protein substances 
found in the animal body are : lean meat, fibrin, all 
kinds of tendons, ligaments, nerves, skin, brain, in 
fact the entire working machinery of th'e animal body. 
The casein of milk and the white of the ^'g% are, fur- 
thermore, protein substances. It is evident from the 
enumeration made that protein is to the animal bod}^ 
what the word implies, the most important, the first. 

Fat is a familiar component of the animal body ; it 
is distributed throughout the body in ordinary cases, 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 1 6 



J 



but is found deposited on certain organs, or under the 
skin, in thick laj^ers, in the case of very fat animals. 

The animal cannot, as is well known, live on air ; 
it must manufacture its body substances and products 
from the food it eats, hence the next subject for con- 
sideration should be : 

Composition of Feeding Stuffs. 

The feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of our 
farm animals are composed of similar compounds as 
those which are found in the body of the animal itself, 
although the components in the two cases are rarely 
identical, but can be distinguished from each other in 
most cases b\' certain chemical reactions. The animal 
body through its vital functions has the faculty of 
changing the various food substances which it finds in 
the food in such a way that they are in many instances 
different from an}- substances found in the vegetable 
world. 

The components of feeding stuffs which are generally 
enumerated and taken into account in ordinary 
chemical fodder anah^sis, or in discussions of feeding- 
problems are: Water (or Moisture, as it is often called), 
ash materials^ fat {or ether-extracf) , protein, crude 
Jiber, and 7iitrogen-free extract; the two components 
last given are sometimes grouped together under the 
name Carbhydrates. These components are in nearh' 
all cases mixtures of substances that possess certain 
properties in common ; and as the mixtures are often 
made up of different components, or of the same com- 
ponents in varying proportions, it follows that even if 
a substance is given in a table of composition of feed- 
ing stuffs, in the same quantities in case of two differ- 
ent feeds, these feeds do not necessarily have the same 
food value as far as this component alone is concerned. 
Water or moisture is found in all feeding stuffs, 
whether succulent or apparently dry. Green fodders 
contain from 60 to 90 per cent of water, according to 



164 A feeders' guide. 

the stage of maturity of the fodder ; root crops con- 
tain between 80 and 90 per cent, while hay of different 
kinds, straw, and concentrated feeds ordinarily have 
water contents ranging between 15 and 8 per cent. 

Ash or mineral matter is found in all plant tissues 
and feeding stuffs. We find most ash in leafy plants, 
or in refuse feeds made up from the outer covering of 
grains or other seeds, viz. , from 4 to 8 per cent ; less in 
the cereals and green fodder, and least of all in roots. 
A fair amount of ash materials is a necessity in feeding 
young stock and pregnant animals, and only limited 
amounts of foods low in ash should be fed to such 
animals ; refuse feed from starch and glucose factories 
which have been treated with large quantities of water 
should, therefore, be fed with care in such cases. 

Fat or ether extract is the portion of the feeding 
vStuff which is dissolved by ether or benzine. It is 
found in large quantities in the oil-bearing seeds, more 
than one-third of these being composed of oil or fat ; 
the oil-mill refuse feeds are also rich in fat, especially 
cottonseed meal and old-process linseed meal ; other 
feeds rich in fat are gluten meal and feed, grano-glu- 
ten and rice meal. The ether extract of the coarse 
fodders contains considerable wax, resins, and other 
substances which have a low feeding value, while that 
of the seeds and by-products from these are essentially 
pure fat or oil. 

Protein or Jlesh forming- substances are considered 
of the highest importance in feeding animals, because 
they supply the material required for building up the 
tissues of the body, and for maintaining these under 
the wear caused by the vital functions. Ordinarily 
the feed rations of most farmers are deficient in protein 
since most of the farm-grown foods (not including 
clover, alfalfa, peas and similar crops) contain only 
small amounts of these substances. The feeding stuffs 
richest in protein are, among the coarse foods : those 
already mentioned ; among the concentrated foods : 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 1 65 

cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, gluten meal, gluten 
feed, grano-gluten, buckwheat middlings, and the 
flour-mill, brewery, and distillery refuse feeds. The 
protein substances are also called nitrogenous bodies, 
for the reason given above, and the other organic 
(combustible) components in the feeding stuffs are 
spoken of as non-7iitroge7io2is substances. The non ni- 
trogenous components of feeding stuffs, therefore, in- 
clude fat and the two following groups, crude fiber and 
nitrogen-free extract. 

Crude fiber \s the framework of the plants, forming 
the walls of the cells. It is usually the least digestible 
portion of plants and vegetable foods, and the larger 
proportion present thereof the less valuable the food 
is. We find, accordingly, that the fodders containing 
most crude fiber are the cheapest foods and least prized 
among feeders, as, e. g. , straw of the various cereal 
and seed producing crops, corncobs, oat and rice hulls, 
cotton-seed hulls, buckwheat hulls, and the like. 
These feeding stuffs, in so far as they can be consid- 
ered as such, contain as a rule between 35 and 50 per 
cent of crude fiber. Concentrated feeding stuffs, on 
the other hand, often contain less than 5 per cent of 
crude fiber, and in the cereals only a couple of per 
cent of crude fiber are found. 

Nitrogen- free extract is a general name for all that 
is left of the organic matter of plants and fodders af- 
ter deducting the preceding groups of compounds. It 
includes some of the most valuable constituents of 
feeding stuffs, which make up the largest bulk of the 
food materials ; first in importance among these con- 
stituents are starch and sugar, and, in addition, a 
number of less well-known substances of similar com- 
positions, like pentosans, gums, organic acids, etc. 
Together with crude fiber the nitrogen- free extract 
forms the group of substances known as carbohydrates. 
A general name for carbohydrates is heat-producing 
substances, since this is one important function which 



1 66 A feeders' guide. 

they fill ; they are not as valuable for this purpose, 
pound for pound, as fat, which also is often used for 
the purpose by the animal organism, but on account 
of the large quantities in which the carbohydrates are 
found in most feeding stuffs they form a group of food 
materials second to none in importance. Since it has 
been found that fat will produce about 2 j^ times as 
much heat as carboh3'drates on combustion, the two 
components are often considered together in tables of 
composition of feeding stuffs and in discussions of the 
feeding value of different foods, the per cent of fat 
being multiplied by 2 5^ in such cases, and added to 
the per cent of carbohydrates (i. e., crude fiber plus 
nitrogen-free extract) in the foods. As this renders 
comparisons much easier, and simplifies discussions 
for the beginner, we shall adopt this plan in the tables 
and discussions given in this Guide. 

Carbohydrates and fat not only supply heat on being 
oxidized or burned in the body, but also furnish ma- 
terials for energy used in muscular action, whether 
this be voluntary or involuntary. They also in all 
probability^ are largely used for the purpose of storing 
fatty tissue in the body of fattening animals, or of 
other animals that are fed an excess of nutrients above 
what is required for the production of the necessary 
body heat and muscular force. 

To summarize briefly the uses of the various food 
elements : Protein is required for building up muscu- 
lar tissue, and to supply the breaking down and waste 
of nitrogenous components constantly taking place in 
the living body. If fed in excess of this requirement 
it is used for production of heat and energy. The 
non-nitrogenous organic components, i. e., carbohy- 
drates and fat, furnish material for supply of heat and 
muscular exertion, as well as for the production of fat 
in the body or in the milk, in case of milch cows giv- 
ing milk. 

Digestibility of foods. Only a certain portion of a 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 1 67 

feeding stuff is of actual value t(tthe animal, viz., the 
portion which the digestive juices of the animal can 
render soluble, and thus bring into a condition in 
which the system can make the uses of it called for ; 
this digestible portion ranges from half or less to more 
than 96 per cent in case of highly digestible foods. 
The rest is simply ballast, and the more ballast, i. e., 
the less of digestible matter a food contains, the more 
the value of the digestible portion is reduced. Straw, 
e. g., is found, by means of digestion experiments, to 
contain between 30 and 40 per cent of digestible mat- 
ter in all, but it is very doubtful whether an animal 
can be kept alive for any length of time when fed 
straw alone. It very likely costs him more effort to 
extract the digestible matter therefrom than the ener- 
gy this can supply. An animal lives on and produces 
not from what he eats but from what he digests. 

Relative value of feeding stuffs. Since the price of 
different feeding stuffs varies greatly with the locality 
and season, it is impossible to give definite statements 
as to the relative economy which will hold good al- 
ways. It may be said, in general, that the feeding 
stuffs richest in protein are our most costly and at the 
same time our most valuable foods. Experience has 
shown to a certainty that a liberal supply of protein is 
an advantage in feeding most classes of farm animals, 
so that if such feeding stuffs can be obtained at fair 
prices, it will pay to feed them quite extensively, and 
they must enter into all food rations in fair quantities 
in order that the animals may produce as much milk, 
meat, or other farm products, as is necessary to render 
them profitable to their owner. The following state- 
ment shows a classification of feeding stuffs w^hich 
may prove helpful in deciding upon kinds and amounts 
of feeds to be purchased or fed. 



1 68 A feeders' guide. 

Classificaiion of Cattle Foods. 



COARSK FEEDS. 



1 


2 


3 




Low in protein. 


Medium in pro- 


Ivow in 


protein. 


Hig-h in carbohy- 


tein. 


High in 


carbo- 


drates. 


Medium in carbo- 


hydrates, 


50 to 65 per cent 


hydrates. 


85 to 95 


per cent 


dig-estible. 


55 to 65 per cent 


digestible. 




dig-estible. 






Hays, straws, 


Clovers, 


Carrots 


pota- 


corn fodder, 


pasture g-rass, 


toes. 


sug-ar 


corn stover. 


vetches, pea 


beets. 


man- 


silag-e, cereal 


and bean fod- 


golds. 


turnips. 


fodders. 


der. 







Very high in 

protein (above 

40 per cent. ) 



Dried blood. 
Meat scraps. 
Cotton-seed 
meal 



High in 

protein 

(25-40 per ct. ) 



Gluten meal. 
Atlas meal. 
Linseed meal. 
Buckwheat 

middling-3. 
Buckwheat 

shorts 
Soja-bean. 
Grano-g-luten. 



Fairly hig-h in 

protein 
(12-25 per ct.) 



Malt sprouts. 

Dried brew- 
ers' g-rains. 

Gluten feed. 

Cow pea. 

Pea meal. 

Wheat shorts. 

Rye shorts. 

Oats shorts. 

Wheat mid- 
dling-s. 

Wheat bran. 

L/Ow-g-rade 
flour. 



Low in pro- 
tein ( below 
12 per cent) 



Wheat. 
Barley. 
Oats. 
Rye. 
Corn. 

Rice polish. 
Rice. 
Hominy 
chops. 
Germ meal. 
Oat feeds. 



FEEDING STANDARDS. 



Investigations by scientists have brought to light 
the fact that the different classes of farm animals re- 



FEEDING STANDARDS. 1 69 

quire certain amounts of food materials for keeping 
the body functions in regular healthy activity ; this is 
known as the maintenance ration of the animal, an 
allowance of feed which will cause him to maintain 
his live weight without either gaining or losing, or 
producing animal products like milk, wool, meat, eggs, 
etc. If the animal is expected to manufacture these 
products in addition, it is necessary to supply enough 
extra food to furnish materials for this manufacture. 
The food requirements for different purposes have been 
carefully studied, and we know now with a fair amount 
of accurac}^ how much food it takes in the different 
cases to reach the objects sought. Since there is a 
great variety of different foods, and almost infinite 
possible combinations of these, it would not do to ex- 
press these requirements in so and so many pounds of 
corn or oats, or wheat bran, but they are in all cases 
expressed in amounts of digestible protein, carbohy- 
drates and fat. This enables the feeder to supply 
these food materials in such feeding stuffs as he has on 
hand or can procure. The feeding standards common- 
ly adopted as basis for calculations of this kind are 
those of the German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann. 
Those standards give, then, the approximate amount 
of dry matter, digestible protein, carbohydrates, and 
fat which the different classes of farm animals should 
receive in their daily food in order to produce maxi- 
mum returns. We have seen that a fair amount of 
digestible protein in the food is essential in order to 
obtain good results. The proportion of digestible ni- 
trogenous to digestible non-nitrogenous food sub- 
stances therefore becomes important. This proportion 
is technically known as Nutritive Ratio, and we speak 
of wide nutritive ratio, when there are six or more 
times as much digestible carbohydrates and fat in 
a ration as there is digestible protein, and a narrow 
ratio, when the proportion of the two kinds of food 
materials is as i to 6, or less. 



I70 



A FEEDERS GUIDE. 



3. 



FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS 

(Wolff-Lehmann.) 
(Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight. 



Steers at rest in stall 

Steers slightly worked 

Steers moderately worked 

Steers heavily worked 

Fattening steers. 1st period 

" ' " 2d " 

^^ 3d '^ 

Milch cows, daily milk vield, 11 lbs... 
'' 10.5 " . .. 
.. 22 "... 
'^ 27.6 " ... 



4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds 

" ^ finer breeds 

5. Breeding ewes, with lambs 

6. Fattening sheep, 1st period 

" 2d *' 

7. Horses lightly worked 

Horses moderately worked 

Horses heavily worked 

8. Brood sows, with pigs 

0. Fattening swine, 1st period 

" 2d " 

" 3d •' 

10. Growing cattle : 

Dairy Breeds. 

Azer. Live Weight 
Age, Months. per head. 

2-3 154 lbs 

3-6 309 " 

6-12 507 " 

12-18 705 " 

18.24 882 " 



lbs. 

18 
22 
25 
28 

30 
30 
26 

25 
27 
29 
32 

20 
23 

25 

30 
26 

20 
24 
26 

22 

36 

32 

25 



Nutriti 


ve 


[A 


(Digestible) 


o 


Substances. 


^1 








c 


'h 


^ 






<u 


u 


•^ g ! 


(U 


rt 




3 Cfl 1 


o 


u 




% 


v^ 


. "^ 


X 


ll&^ 


O ►^ 


v-W 


T-t 


T3 


.aj3 


a; 


CTJ 


3 


u 


J3 








a 


^ 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


0.7 


8.0 


0.1 


8.9 


1.4 


10.0 


0.3 


12.1 


2.0 


11.5 


0.5 


14,7 


2.8 


13.0 


0.8 


17.7 


2.5 15.0 


0.5 


18.7 


3.0 14.5 


0.7 


19.2 


2.7 15.0 


0.7 


19.4 


1.6 10.0 


0.3 


12.3 


2.0 


11.0 


0.4 


14.0 


2.5 


13.0 


0.5 


16.7 


3.3 


13.0 


0.8 


18.2 


1.2 


10.5 


0.2 


12.2 


1.5 


12.5 


0.3 


14.2 


2.9 


15.0 


0,5 


19.1 


3.0 


18.0 


0.5 


19.2 


3.5 


14.0 


0.6 


19.4 


1.5 


9.5 


0.4 


12.0 


2.0 


11.0 


0.6 


14.5 


2.5 


13.3 


0.8 


17.7 


2.5 


15.5 


0.4 


19.0 


4.5 


25.0 


0.7 


31.2 


4.0 


24.0 


0.5 


29.2 


2.7 


18.0 


0.4 


22.0 


4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


21.8 


3.0 


12.8 


1.0 


18.2 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


15.7 


1.8 


12.5 


0.4 


15.3 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


14.2 



1:11.8 

1: 7.7 
1: 6.5 
1: 5.3 

1: 6.5 
1: 5.4 

1: 6.2 

1: 6.7 
1: 6,0 

1: 5.7 
1: 4.5 

1: 9,1 
1: 8.5 

1: 5,6 



5,4 
4.5 



1: 7,0 
1: 6,2 
1: 6,0 

1: 6,6 



5,9 
6,3 
7.0 



1: 4,5 
1: 5,1 
1: 6.8 
1: 7,5 
1: 8.5 



171 



FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS.— Continued. 



11. Growing- cattle : 

Beef Breeds. 



Age, Months. 

2-3 

3-(. 

6-12 
12-18 
18-24 



Atcv. Live Weight 
per head. 

165 lbs 

331 '' 

551 '' 

750 " 

937 '' 



12. Growinur sheep : 

Wool Breeds. 

4-6 

6-8 

8-11 

11-15 

15-20 

13. Growing- sheep : 

Mutton Breeds. 

4-6 

6-8 

8-11 

11-15 

15-20 

14. Growing- swine : 



60 lbs 25 



75 
84 
90 
99 



66 lbs 

84 " 

101 '' 

121 " 

154 " 



Breeding Animals. 



2-3 
3-5 
5-6 
6-8 
8-12 

15. Growing- fat pig's: 

2-3 
3-5. 
5-6 
6-8 
8-12 



44 lbs 
99 " 
121 " 
176 " 

265 " 

44 lbs, 
110 '■- 
143 " 
198 " 
287 " 



4.2 

3.5 
2.5 
2.0 
1.8 



4.4 

3.5 
3.0 
2.2 
2.0 



7.6 
5.0 
3.7 
2.8 
2.1 



7.6 
5-0 
4.3 
3.6 
3.0 



13.0 
12.8 
13.2 

12.5 
12.0 



15.4 
13.8 
11.5 
11.2 
10.8 



15.5 
15.0 
14.3 

12.6 
12.0 



28.0 
23.1 
21.3 
18.7 
15.3 



28.0 
23.1 
22.3 
20.5 
18.3 



2.0 
1.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 



0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 



0.9 
0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 



1.0 
0.8 
0.4 
0.3 
0.2 



1.0 
0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 



20.0 
19.9 
17.4 
15.7 
14.8 



20.5 
18.0 
14.8 
14.0 
13.0 



22.1 

20.2 
18.5 
16.0 
15.0 



38.0 
30.0 
26.0 
22.2 
17.9 



38.0 
30.0 
28.0 
25.1 
22.0 



1: 4.2 
1: 4.7 
1: 6.0 
1: 6.8 
1: 7.2 



1: 5.0 
1: 5.4 
1: 6.0 
1: 7.0 
1: 7.7 



1: 4.0 
1: 4.8 
1: 5.2 
1: 6.3 
1: 6.5 



1: 4.0 
1: 5.0 
1: 6.0 
1: 7.0 
1: 7.5 



4.0 

5.0 

5.5 



1: 6.0 
1: 6.4 



172 A feeders' guide. 

The feeding standards given in the preceding tables 
may serve as a fairly accurate guide in determining 
the food requirements of farm animals ; and it will be 
noticed that the amounts are per 1000 pounds live 
weight, and not per head, except as noted in the case 
of growing animals. They should not be looked upon 
as infallible guides, which they are not, for the simple 
reason that different animals differ greatly both in the 
amounts of food that they consume and in the uses 
which they are able to make of the food they eat. 
The feeding standard for milch cows has probably 
been subjected to the closest study by American ex- 
periment station workers, and it has been found in 
general that the Wolff Lehmann standard calls for 
more digestible protein (i. e., a narrower nutritive 
ratio) than can be fed with economy in most of the 
dairy sections of our country, at least in the central 
and northwestern states. On basis of investigations 
conducted in the early part of the nineties, along this 
line, Prof. Woll, of Wisconsin, proposed a so-called 
American practical feediiig rafio7t, which calls for the 
following amounts of digestible food materials in the 
daily ration of a dairy cow of an average weight of 
1000 pounds. 
Digestible protein, ... 2.2 lbs. 

*' carbohydrates, 13.3 " ] carbohydrates -f fat 

fat .7 " j" X 2j^, 14.9 lbs. 

Total digestible matter, . 17. i " protein -f carbohy- 
drates -ffatX2^. 
Nutritive ratio, . . 1:6.9. 

HOW TO FIGURE OUT RATIONS. 

We shall use the practical American feeding ration 
as a basis for figuring out the food materials which 
should be supplied a dairy cow weighing 1000 pounds, 
in order to insure a maximum and economical produc- 
tion of milk and butter fat from her. We will sup- 
pose that a farmer has the following foods at his dis- 



HOW TO FIGURE OUT RATIONS. I 73 

posal : corn silage, mixed timothy and clover hay, 
and wheat bran ; and that he has to feed about forty 
pounds of silage per head daily, in order to have it 
last through the winter and spring. We will suppose 
that he gives his cows in addition five pounds of hay 
and about six pounds of bran. If we now look up in 
the tables given on pages 185 to 189, the amounts of 
digestible food components contained in the quantities 
given of these feeds, we shall have : 

Total Digestible Total Nut. 

dry nitr. Pro. Carb.&fat. dig. tntr. ratio. 
40 lbs. corn silage. 10.5 lbs. .48 lbs. 7.1 lbs. 7.58 

5 lbs. mixed hay, 4.2 .22 2.2 2.42 

6 lbs. wheat bran, 5.3 .72 2.8 3.52 



20.0 1.42 12.1 13.52 1: 8.5 

We notice that the ration as now given contains too 
little total digestible matter, there being a deficit of 
both digestible protein, carbodydrates and fat, it will 
evidently be necessary to supply at least a couple of 
pounds more of some concentrated feed, and preferably 
of a feed rich in protein, since the deficit of this com- 
ponent is proportionally greater than that of the other 
components. In selecting a certain food to be added 
and deciding the quantities to be fed the cost of differ- 
ent available foods must be considered. We will sup- 
pose that linseed meal can be bought at a reasonable 
price in this case, and will add two pounds thereof to 
the ration. We then have the following amounts of 
digestible matter in the ration : 

Total Digestible Total Nutritive 

Dry Mtr. Pro. Carb.fat. dig. ntti . Ratio. 

Ration as above, 20.0 lbs. 142 lbs. 12.1 lbs. 13.52 1.8.5 
21bs.oilmeal(O.P. ) 1.8 .62 1.0 1.62 



Total, 21.8 

Amer. prac. feed'g- ration, 
Wolff-Lehmann 

standard, 29,0 



2.04 


13.1 


16.14 


1:6.4 


2,2 


14.9 


17.1 


1:6,9 


2.5 


14.1 


16.6 


1:5.7 



174 A feeders' guide. 

The new ration is still rather light, both in total and 
digestible food materials ; for many cows it might 
prove effective as it is, while for others it would doubt- 
less be improved by a further addition of some con- 
centrated food medium rich in protein, or if grain feeds 
are high, of more ha}' or silage. The feeding rations 
are not intended to be used as infallible standards that 
must be followed blindly, nor could they be used as 
such. They are onh' meant to be approximate gauges 
b}' which the farmer may know whether the ration 
which he is feeding is of about such a composition and 
furnishes such amounts of important food materials 
as are most likely to produce best results, cost of feed 
and returns in products as well as condition of animals 
being all considered. 

In constructing rations according to the above feed- 
ing standards, several points must be considered be- 
sides the chemical composition and the digestibili- 
ty of the feeding stuffs ; the standards cannot be 
followed directly without regard to bulk and other 
properties of the fodder ; the ration must not be too 
bulky, and still must contain a sufficient quantit}- of 
roughage to keep up the rumination of the animals, 
in case of cows and sheep, and to secure a healthy 
condition of the animals generally. The local market 
prices of cattle foods are of the greatest importance in 
determining which foods to bu}' ; the conditions in the 
different sections of our great continent differ so great- 
ly in this respect that no generalizations can be made. 
Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds 
are the cheapest feeds in the south and in the east, 
and flour mill, brewery, and starch- factory refuse feeds 
the cheapest in the northwest. 

The tables given on pages 185 to 189 will be found 
of great assistance in figuring out the nutrients in feed 
rations ; the tables have been reproduced from a bul- 
letin published by the Vermont Experiment Station, 
and are based upon the latest compilations of analyses 



GRAIN MIXTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. 



175 



of feeding stuffs. A few rations are given in the fol- 
lowing as samples of combinations of different kinds 
of feed with corn silage that will produce good results 
with dairy cows. The rations given on page 142 may 
also be studied to advantage in making up feed rations 
with silage for dairy cows. The Experiment Stations 
or other authorities publishing the rations are given in 
all cases. 



Grain Mixture For Dairy Cows. 

Mixtures to be fed with one bushel of silag-e and hay, or 
with corn stover or hay. 

Massachusetts Experiment Station. 
1. 



100 lbs. bran. 

100 lbs. flour middling-s. 

150 lbs. gluten feed. 

Mix and feed 7 quarts daily. 



100 lbs. bran. 

100 lbs. flour middlings. 

100 lbs. gluten or cottonseed meal. 

Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily. 



100 lbs. cottonseed or gluten meal. 

150 lbs. corn and cob meal. 

100 lbs. bran. 

Mix a«dfeed 7 to 8 quarts daiU-. 



103 lbs. bran or mixed feed. 

150 lbs. gluten feed. 

Mix and feed 9 quarts daily. 



200 lbs. malt sprouts. 

100 lbs. bran. 

100 lbs. gluten feed. 

Mix and feed 10 to 12 quarts daily. 



125 lbs. gluten feed. 
100 lbs. corn and cob meal. 
Mix and feed 5 to 6 quarts daily. 



New Jersey Experiment Station : 40 lbs. corn si- 
lage, 5 lbs. gluten feed, 5 lbs. dried brewers' grains, 
2 lbs. w^heat bran. 

(2) 35 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. mixed hay, 5 lbs. 
wheat bran, 2 lbs. each of oil meal, gluten meal and 
hominy meal. 

('3) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. 
wheat bran, 2 lbs. malt sprouts, i lb. each of cotton- 
seed meal and hominy meal. 



176 A feeders' guide. 

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. dried brewers' grains, 
4 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

Maryland Experiment Station : 40 lbs. silage, 5 
lbs. clover hay, 9 lbs. wheat middlings, and i lb. glu- 
ten meal. 

(2) 30 lbs. silage, 8 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. cow pea 
hay, 3 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal. 

Michigan Experiment Station : ( i) 40 lbs. silage, 
8 lbs. mixed hay, 8 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(2) 30 lbs silage, 5 lbs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. corn 
meal, 4 lbs- bran, 2 lbs cottonseed meal, 2 lbs. oil 
meal. 

(3) 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. bran, 
4 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. oil meal, 

(4) 30 lbs. silage, 4 lbs. clover hay, 10 lbs. bran. 
Kansas Experiment Station : ( i ) Corn silage 40 

lbs., 10 lbs. praiiie hay or millet, 4^ lbs. bran, 3 lbs, 
cottonseed meal. 

(2) 40 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. corn fodder, 4 lbs. 
bran, 2 lbs. Chicago gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed 
meal. 

(3) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. sorghum hay, 3 lbs. 
corn, i^^ lbs. bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1% lbs. cotton 
seed meal. 

(4) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. millet, 4 lbs. corn, 
I lb. gluten meal, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(5) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2^ lbs. 
bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1^4 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2)^ 
lbs. bran, 3 lbs gluten meal, i >4 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. oats straw, 2 lbs. 
oats, 4 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed 
meal. 

Cy) 20 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn. 

(8) 15 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 5 lbs. Kafir 
corn. 

(9) 20 lbs. com silage, 15 lbs. alfalfa, 4 lbs. corn, 
3 lbs. bran. 



GRAIN MIXTURE FOR DAIRY COWvS. 1 77 

(10) 40 lbs. corn silao:e, 5 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn, 
3 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. O. P. linseed meal, i lb. cottonseed 
meal. 

Tennessee Experiment Station: 30 lbs. silage, 10 
lbs. clover or cow pea hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 3 lbs. 
of corn, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

North Carolina Experiment Station: (i) 40 lbs. 
corn silage, 10 lbs. cottonseed hulls, 5 lbs. cottonseed 
meal. 

(2) 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. orchard grass hay, 
4^2 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(3) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa, 6 lbs. wheat 
bran, 5 lbs. cottonseed hulls. 

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow pea vine hay. 

(5) 40 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 6 lbs. 
field peas ground. 

(6) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. cut corn fodder, 3 
lbs. ground corn, 4 lbs bran, i lb. cottonseed meal (ra- 
tion fed at Biltmore Estate to dairy cows. Silage is 
fed to steers and cows, and corn, peas, teosinte, cow- 
peas, millet and crimson clover are used as silage 
crops. These crops ate put into the silo in alternate 
layers. " Will never stop using the silo and silage"). 

South Carolina : 30 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. bran, 3 
lbs. cottonseed meal, 12 lbs. cottonseed hulls. 

Georgia Experiment Station : 40 lbs. corn silage, 
15 lbs. cow- pea hay, 5 lbs. bran. 

Ontario Agr. College : 45 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. 
clover ha3^ 8 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. barley. 

Nappan Experiment Station (Canada) : 30 lbs. corn 
silage, 20 lbs. hay, 8 lbs. bran and meal. 

The criticism may properly be made with a large 
number of the rations given in the preceding, that it 
is only in case of low prices of grain or concentrated 
feeds in general, and with good dairy cows, that it is 
possible to feed such large quantities of grain profit- 
ably as those often given. In the central and north- 
western states it will not pay to feed grain heavily 



17^ 



A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 



with corn at fifty cents a bushel , and oats at thirty 
cents a bushel or more. In times of high prices of 
feeds, it is only in exceptional cases that more than 
six to eight pounds of concentrated feeds can be fed 
with economy per head daily. Some few cows can 
give proper returns for more than this quantity of 
grain even when this is high, but more cows will not 
do so. The farmer should aim to grow protein foods 
like clover, alfalfa, peas, etc., to as large extent as 
practicable, and thus reduce his feed bills. 

Average Composition of Silage Crops of Dif- 
ferent Kinds, in per cent. 









Crude 


Crude 


Nitrogen 


Ether 




Water 


Ash 


protein 


fiber 


free ex- 
tract 


extract 


Corn silage 














mature corn 


73.7 


1.6 


2.2 


6.5 


15.1 


.9 


immature corn 


79.1 


1.4 


l'.7 


6.0 


11.0 


.8 


ears removed 


80.7 


1.8 


1.8 


5.6 


9.5 


.6 


Clover silage 


72.0 


2.6 


4.2 


8.4 


11.6 


1.2 


Soja bean silage 


74.2 


2.8 


4.1 


9.7 


6.9 


2.2 


Cow-pea vine silage 


79.3 


2.9 


2.7 


6.0 


7.6 


l!5 


Field-pea vine silage 


50.0 


3.6 


5.9 


13.0 


26.0 


1.6 


Corn cannery refuse- 














husks 


83.8 


.6 


1.4 


5.2 


7.9 


1.1 


Corn cannery refuse- 














cobs 


74.1 


.5 


1.5 


7.9 


14.3 


1.7 


Pea cannery refuse 


76 8 


1.3 


,2.8 


6.5 


11.3 


1.3 


•Sorghum silag"e 


76.1 


1.1 


.8 


6.4 


15 3 


3 


Corn-soja bean silage 


76 


2.4 


2.5 


7.2 


11.1 


.8 


Millet-soja bean silage 


79.0 


2.8 


2.8 


7.2 


7.2 


1.0 


Rye silag-e 


80.8 


1.6 


2.4 


58 


9.2 


.3 


Apple pomace silage 


85.0 


.6 


1.2 


3.3, 


8.8 


1.1 


Cow-pea and soja 














bean mixed 


69 8 


45 


3.8 


9.5 


11.1 


1.3 


Corn-kernels 


41.3 


1.0 


6.0 


1.5 


46.6 


3.6 


Mixed g-rasses 














(rowen) 


18.4 


7.1 


10.1 


22.8 


36.0 


5.7 


Brewers' g-rain 














silag-e 


69.8 


1.2 


6.6 


4.7 


15.6 


2.1 



The above table gives actual chemical analyses of 



ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



179 



the products mentioned and includes the entire 100 
per cent, of the contents and weight. The following 
table, compiled by the Editors of Hoard's Dairymen, 
Fort Atkinson, Wis., shows the average amounts of 
digestible nutrients in the more common American 
fodders, grains and by-products, and is the table that 
should be used in formulating rations. The tables give 
the amounts of digestible nutrients contained in 100 
lbs. in pounds, and the figures can, therefore, be taken 
as per cents in figuring out the amount of digestible 
nutrients in any given amount of food material, and it 
is by such methods that the tables given on pages 185 
to 1 89 are obtained. 

ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

Table Showing Average Amounts of Digestible 

Nutrients in the More Common American 

Fodders, Grains and By- Products. 

Complied by the Editors of Hoard's Dairyman, Fort 

Atkinson, Wis. 



Name of Feed. 



GREEN FODDERS. 



Pasture Grasses mixed 20.0 

Fodder Corn 20.7 

Sorg-utn 20.6 

Red Clover 29.2 

Alfalfa 28.2 

Cow Pea 16.4 

Soja Bean 24.9 

Oat Fodder 37.8 

Rye iFodder •. 23.4 

Rape 14.0 

Peas and Oats 16,0 

Beet Pulp 10.2 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Pounds. 


c 
'I 



Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
Extract. 
(Crude 

Fat.) 



Lbs. Ivbs. Lbs. Lbs^ 



2.5 


10.2 


0.5, 


1.0 


11.6 


0.4 


0.6 


12.2 


0.4- 


2.9 


14.8 


0.7 


3.9 


12.7 


0.5 


1.8 


8.7 


0.2 


3.2 


11.0 


0.5 


2.6 


18.9 


1.0 


2.1 


14.1 


0.4 


1.5 


8.1 


0.2 


1.8 


7.1 


0.2 


0.6 


7.3 





i8o 



A feeders' guide. 



Name ob- Feed. 



Digestible Nutrients 
in loo Pounds. 




SII^AGE. Ivbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs 



Corn 20.9 0.9 

Corn, Wisconsin analyses 26.4 1.3 

Sorg"hum 23.9 0.6 

Red Clover 28.0 2.0 

Alfalfa 27.5 3.0 

Cow Pea 20.7 1.5 

Soja Bean 25*8 2.7 

DRY FODDER AND HAY. 

Corn Fodder 57.8 2.5 

Corn Fodder, Wis. analyses 71.0 3.7 

Corn Stover 59.5 1.7 

Sorghum Fodder 59.7 1.5 

Red Clover 84.7 6.8 

Alfalfa 91.6 11.0 

Barley 85.2 6.2 

Blue Grass 78.8 4.8 

Cow Pea 89.3 10.8 

Crab Grass 82.4 5.7 

Johnson Grass 87.7 2.4 

Marsh Grass 88.4 2*4 

Millet 92.3 4.5 

Oat Hay 91.1 4.3 

Oat and Pea Hay 85.4 9.2 

Orchard Grass 90.1 4.9 

Prairie Grass. 87,5 3.5 

Red Top 91.1 4.8 

Timothy 86.8 2,8 

Timothy and Clover 85.3 4.8 

Vetch 88,7 12.9 

White Daisy 85,0 3.8 

STRAW. 

Barley ". 85.8 0,7 

Oat 90.8 1,2 

Rye 92,9 0.6 

Wheat 90.4 0.4 



11.3 

14.0 

14,9 

13.5 

8.5 

8.6 

8,7 



34,6 
40,4 
32.4 
37.3 
35.8 
39.6 
46.6 
37.3 
38.6 
39.7 
47.8 
29.9 
51,7 
46.4 
36.8 
42.3 
41,8 
46.9 
43.4 
39.6 
47,5 
40.7 



41.2 
38.6 
40.6 
36.3 



0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
1.0 
1-9 
0.9 
1.3 



1.2 
1.2 
0.7 
0.4 
1.7 
1.2 
1.5 
2.0 
1.1 
1.4 
0.7 
0.9 
1.3 
1.5 
1.2 
1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
1.4 
1.6 
1.4 
1.2 



0,6 
0.8 
0,4 
0.4 



ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



I5l 



Name of Feed. 



.5 


Digestible Nutrients 


, tn 


in 


rnn 


Pounds. 










■^ s 








1^ 


■53 




ohy- 
tes. 


Ether 
Extract. 
(Crude 
Fat. 






u 




Carb 
dra 



ROOTS AND TUBERS. Ivbs. Lbs. 

Artichokes 20.0 2.0 

Beets common 13.0 1.2 

Beets, stig-ar 13.5 1.1 

Carrots 11.4 0.8 

Mang-els 9.1 1.1 

Parsnips 11.7 1.6 

Potatoes 21.1 0.9 

Rutabagas 11.4 1.0 

Turnips 9.5 1.0 

Sweet Potatoes 29.0 0.9 

GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS. 

Barley 89.1 8.7 

Brewers' Grains, dry 91.8 15.7 

Brewers' Grains, wet 24.3 3.9 

Malt Sprouts 89.8 18.6 

Buckwheat 87.4 7.7 

Buckwheat Bran 89.5 7.4 

Buckwheat Middlings 87.3 22.0 

Corn 89.1 7.9 

Corn and Cob Meal 89.0 6.4 

Corn Cob 89.3 0.4 

Corn Bran 90.9 7.4 

Atlas Gluten Meal 92.0 24.6 

Gluten Meal 88.0 32.1 

Germ Oil Meal 90.0 20.2 

Gluten Feed 90.0 23.3 

Hominy Chop 88.9 7.5 

Starch Feed, wet 34.6 5.5 

Cotton Seed 89.7 12.5 

Cotton Seed Meal 91.8 37.2 

Cotton Seed Hulls 88.9 0.3 

Cocoanut Meal 89.7 15.6 

Cow Peas 85.2 18.3 

Flax Seed 90.8 20.6 

Oil Meal, old process 90.8 29.3 

Oil Meal, new process 89.9 28.2 



[ybs. 


I.bs. 


16.8 


0.2 


8.8 


0.1 


10.2 


0.1 


7.8 


0.2 


5.4 


0.1 


11.2 


0.2 


16.3 


0.1 


8.1 


0.2 


7.2 


0.2 


22.2 


0.3 


65.6 


1.6 


36.3 


5.1 


9.3 


1.4 


37.1 


1.7 


49.2 


1.8 


30.4 


1.9 


33.4 


5.4 


66.7 


4.3 


63.0 


3.5 


52.5 


0.3 


59.8 


4.6 


38.8 


11.5 


41.2 


2.5 


44.5 


8.8 


50.7 


2.7 


55.2 


6.8 


21.7 


2.3 


30.0 


17.3 


16.9 


8.4 


33.1 


1.7 


38.3 


10.5 


54.2 


1.1 


17.1 


29.0 


32.7 


7.0 


40.1 


2.8 



I82 



A feeders' guide. 





.s 


Digestible Nutrients 






in 100 Pounds. 












'- 


Name of Feed. 


ii 


c 
•5 


ohy 
tes. 




- 





u 


Carb 
dra 


OJ >- « 



Cleveland Oil Meal 89.6 

Kaffir Corn 84.8 

Millet 86.0 

Oats 89.0 

Oat Feed or Shorts 92.3 

Oat Dust 93.5 

Peas . 89.5 

Quaker Dairy Feed 92.5 

Rve ." 88.4 

Rye Bran 88.4 

Wheat 89.5 

Wheat Bran 88.1 

Wheat Middling:s 87.9 

Wheat Shorts 88.2 



32.1 


25.1 


2.6 


7.8 


57.1 


2.7 


8.9 


45.0 


3.2 


9.2 


47.3 


4.2 


12.5 


46.9 


2.8 


8.9 


38.4 


5.1 


16.8 


51.8 


0.7 


9.4 


50.1 


3.0 


9.9 


67.6 


1.1 


11.5 


50.3 


2.0 


10.2 


69.2 


1.7 


12.6 


38.6 


3.0 


12.8 


53.0 


3.4 


12.2 


50.0 


3.8 



Weight of Concentrated Feeds. 



Kind of Feed. 



Cottonseed Meal 

Linseed Meal, old process 

Gluten Meal 

Gluten Feed 

Germ Oil Meal 

Brewers' Grains 

Malt Sprouts 

Wheat Bran 

Wheat Middling-s standard 
Wheat Middlings flour. . . . 

Corn Kernels 

Corn Meal . 

Corn and Cob Meal 

Corn Bran 

Oat Kernels 

Oats ( g-round) 

Wheat Kernels. 

H-0 Dairy Feed 

Quaker Dairy Feed 

Viotor Corn and Oat Feed 



One Ouart 


One Pound 


Equals 


Equals 


1.4 pounds 


0.71 quarts 


1.1 •' 


0.90 ' 




1.8 " 


0.55 ' 




1,3 " 


0.71 ' 




1.4 " 


0.71 ' 




0.6 " 


1.70 ' 




0.6 " 


1.70 ' 




0.5 " 


2.00 ' 




0.8 " 


1.25 ' 




1.2 " 


0.83 • 




1.7 " 


0.60 ' 




1.5 " 


0.70 ' 




1.4 " 


0.67 ' 




0.5 " 


2.00 ' 




1.1 " 


0.90 ' 




0.7 " 


1.40 ' 




1.9 " 


0.53 ' 




0.7 " 


1.43 ' 




1.0 " 


1.00 • 




0.7 " 


1.43 '• 



i83 



Soiling crops Adapted to Northern New 
England States. (Lindsey) 

(For 10 cows' entire soiling-.) 



Kind. 



Rye 

Wheat 

Red clover. . 
Grass and 
clover 

Vetch and oats J 



Peas and oats 



Barnyard millet 

Soja bean (me- 
dium green) 
Corn 



Hung-arian 

Barley and peas j 



Seeds per Acre 



2bu. 



20 lbs 

% bu. redtop.. 
1 pk. timothy 
lOlbs. red clover 
3 bu. oats 
50 lbs. vetch 



1% bu. Canada 
1% bu. oats 



1 peck. 



18 quarts. 



1 bu... 
VA bu. 

VA bu. 



peas . . . 
barley. 



Time of 
Seeding- 



Sept. 10-15 
July 15-Aug-. 
,' Sept. 



April 20 

" 30 

" 20 

" 30 
Mav 10 

"' 25 

" 20 

•• 20 

" 30 

July 15 

Aug-. 5 



Area 


A 


acre 


% 


acre 


A 


acre 


Yi 


acre 


A 


acre 


1 


acre 



Time of Cutting- 



May 20— May 30 
June 1— June 15 
June 15— June 25 

June 15— June 30 



June 25— July 10 

July 10— July 20 

June 25— July 10 

July 10— July 20 
July 25— Aug. 10 
Aug-. 10— Aug-. 20 

Aug. 25— Sept. 15 
Aug. 25— Sept. 10 
Sept. 10— Sept. 20 
Sept. 20— Sept. 30 

Oct. 1— Oct. 20 



Time of Planting and Feeding Soiling Crops. 

(Phelps.) 



Kind of Fodder. 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 

13. 



Rye fodder 

Wheat fodder 

Clover 

Grass (from 'grass-lands) . 

Oats and peas 

Oats and peas 

Oats and peas 

Hungarian 

Clover rowen (from 3) 

Soja beans (from 3) 

Cow-peas 

Rowen grass (from g-rass- 

lands) 

Barley and peas 



Amount of Approxi- 
Seed [mate Time 
per Acre, of Seeding-. 



2^2 to 3 bu. 

VA to 3 bu. 

20 lbs. 

2 bu. each 

2 '' 
2 " 
VA bushels 

1 bushel 
1 



2 bu. each 



Sept. 1 
Sept. 5-10 
July 20-30 

April 10 
'' 20 
'• 30 

June 1 

May 25 
June 5-10 



Aug. 5-10 



Ajjproximate 
Time of Feeding. 



Mav 10-20 
May 20, June 5 
June 5-15 
June 15-25 
June 25, July 10 
July 10-20 

" 20, Aug-. 1 
Aug. 1-10 

" 10-20 

" 20, Sept. 5 



Sept. 



5-20 
20-30 
Oct. 1-30 



The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions 
under approximately similar conditions. 



1 84 



A feeders' guide. 



Cost of a Pound of Digestible Dry Matter in 
Different Feeding Stuffs. 





03 




03 








ible 

for 
trien 








^- -22 




o "ii 3 0) 




bco) 9 0/ 




i ^^ as 


o 

o 

rH 


^"S 8.2 




U 


Otal 
nu 

per 

?est 




5 3 -■- - 


^ 


y ^-^ 




g |n g-c 


c 


oj-O 




u ^ u 


O 


U 


Feeds 


$ lbs. cts. 


Feeds $ 


lbs. cts. 


Corn meal . . . 


..0.80 79.5 1.01 


Mixed (wheat) feed0.90 64.8 1.39 


Cob meal. . . 


. 0.78 71.3 1.09 


Cottonseed meal 1.20 80.3 1.50 


Oats 


. 0.90 67.0 1.34 


Linseedmeal O.P.I. 30 


77.1 1.69 


Provender . . . 


. 0.85 72.3 1.18 


" N.P.I. 30 74.5 1.74 


Quaker dairy feedO.85 60.9 1.40 


Flax meal 1.30 75.5 1.72 






Chicag-o gluten 




H. O. dairy feedl. 00 63.7 1.57 


meal 1.20 


78.9 1.52 






Cream gluten 




Corn and oat feedO.85 70.4 1.21 


meal 1.20 81.11.48 


Hominy chop. 


. 0.90 88.8 1.01 


King gluten meall.20 86.7 1.38 






Buffalo gluten 




Wheat Bran . 


. .0.85 57.9 1.47 


feed 1.00 80.11.25 






Diamond gluten 




Wheat Middliu 


gsO.95 70.6 1.35 


feed 1.00 82.3 1.22 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF (CONTENTS 185 

IN VAKYINCi WEIGHTS OF FEED, IN POUNDS. 

Note.— These tables save calculations of percentages, since, the weights and 
contents being given in pounds, it is only necessary to find the kind and desired 
amount of a certain feed, and the table gives the exact food contents in pounds, as in 
the first table. 15 lbs. of Green Oat Fodder contains 5.7 lbs. of dry matter. 0.35 lbs. of 
protein and 3.1 lbs' carbohydrates. 



Pounds oJ 
fodder 


Total dry 
matter 


'5 

Oh 


<u 




Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates, 
etc. 


■a a; 
S 


n 






Grasses 


Pasture Grass 1 :i.8 


Timothy Grass, 1:14.3 | 


Ey. Blue Grass, 1:9.2 


2y, 


0.5 


0.06 


0.3 


1.0 


0.04 


0.5 


0.9 


0.05 


0.5 


5 




.. 1.0 


0.12 


0.6 


1.9 


0.08 


1.1 


1.8 


0.10 


0.9 


10 




.. 2.0 


0.23 


1.1 


3.8 


0.15 


2.1 


3.5 


0.20 


1.8 


15 




3.0 


0.35 


1.7 


5.8 


0.23 


3.2 


5.2 


0.30 


2.7 


20 




. , 4.0 


0.46 


2.2 


7.7 


0.30 


4.3 


7.0 


0.40 


3.7 


25 




.. 5.0 


0.58 


2.8 


9.6 


0.38 


5.4 


8.7 


0.50 


4.7 


30 




6.0 


0.69 


3.3 


11.5 


0.45 


6.4 


10.5 


0.60 


5.5 


35 




7.0 


0.81 


3.9 


13.4 


0.53 


7.5 


12.2 


0.70 


6.4 


40 




8.0 


0.92 


4.4 


15.4 


0.60 


14.0 


14.0 


0.80 


7.3 


Green Fodde 


rs GreenPodderCornl:!!.?! 


Green Oat Fodder, 1:8.7| 


Gr'n Eye Fodder.l:7.2 


2y^ . ... 


. 0.5 


0.03 


0.3 


0.9 


0.06 


0.5 


0.6 


0.05 


0.4 


5 




. . 1.0 


0.06 


0.6 


1.9 


0.12 


1.0 


1.2 


0.11 


0.7 


10 




. 2.1 


0.11 


1.3 


3.8 


0.24 


2.1 


2.3 


0.21 


1.5 


15 




3.1 


0.17 


1.9 


5.7 


0.36 


3.1 


3.5 


0.32 


2.3 


20 




4.1 


0.22 


2.6 


7.6 


0.48 


4.2 


4.7 


0.42 


3.0 


25 




5.2 


0.28 


3.2 


9.5 


0.60 


5.2 


5.9 


0.52 


3.8 


30 




6.2 


0.33 


3.9 


11.3 


0.72 


6.2 


7.0 


0.63 


4.5 


35 




7.2 


0.39 


4.5 


13.2 


0.84 


7.3 


8.2 


0.74 


5.3 


40 




8.3 


0.44 


5.2 


15.1 


0.96 


8.3 


9.4 


0.84 


6.0 


Green Fodde 


rs Oats a 


ad Peas, 1:4.2 | 


Barley and Peas, 1:3.2 


EedClover(gresn)l:5.7 


2^ 


.. 0.5 


0.07 


0.3 


0.5 


0.07 


0.2 


0.7 


0.07 


0.4 


5 




.. 1.1 


0.14 


0.5 


1.0 


0.14 


0.4 


1.5 


0.15 


0.8 


10 




.. 2.1 


0.27 


1.1 


2.1 


0.28 


0.9 


2.9 


0.29 


1.6 


15 




.. 3.2 


0.41 


1.7 


3.1 


0.42 


].4 


4.4 


0.44 


2.5 


20 




.. 4.3 


0.54 


2.3 


4.1 


0.56 


1.8 


5.9 


0.58 


l^.Z 


25 




.. 5.3 


0.68 


2.0 


5.2 


0.70 


2.3 


7.3 


0.73 


4.1 


30 




. 6.4 


0.81 


3.4 


6.2 


0.84 


2.7 


8.8 


0.87 


4.9 


35 


.. 7.5 


0.95 


4.0 


7.2 


0.96' 3.2 


10.2 


1.02 


5.7 


40 


. 8.5 


1.08 


4.6 


8.2 


1.12 3.6 


11.7 


1.16 


6.6 


Green Fodde 


rs Com Silage, 


1:14.8 


CbrnStover Silage,! :16. 6 


Clover Silage, 1 :4.7 


1y^ 


. 0.7 


0.03 


0.4 


0.5 


0-02 


0.3 


0.7 


0.07 


0.3 


5 




. . 1.3 


0.06 


0.8 


1.0 


0.03 


0.5 


1.4 


0.14 


0.6 


10 




2.6 


0.12 


1.8 


1.9 


0.06 


1.0 


2.8 


0.27 


1.3 


15 




.. 3.9 


0.18 


2.7 


2.9 


0.09 


1.5 


4.2 


0.41 


1.9 


20 . 




. . 5.3 


0.24 


3.6 


3.9 


0.12 


2.0 


5.6 


0.54 


2.6 


25 




. . 6.6 


0.30 


4.5 


4.8 


0.15 


2.5 


7.0 


0.68 


3.2 


30 




.. 7.9 


36 


5.3 


5.8 


0.18 


3.0 


8.4 


0.81 


3.9 


35 




. 9.2 


0.42 


6.2 


6.8 


0.21 


3.5 


9.8 


0.95 


4.5 


40 




. 10.5 


0.48 


7.1 


7.7 


0.24 


4.0 


11.2 


1.08 


5.1 



i86 







READY 


REFERENCE TABLES— Continued. 






Pounds of 
fodder 




c 
o 

u 


^ 'S. 


ft 



Ph 


o u 




s 
"S 



0, 




Roots 


Potatoes, 1:17.3 | 


Sugar Beets, 1:6.8 


Carrots, 1:9.6 


2%.... 




05 


0.02 


0.4 


0.3 


0.04 


0.3 


0.3 


0.03 


0.2 


5 .... 




l.L 


0.05 


0.8 


0.7 


0.08 


0.5 


0.5 


0.05 


0.5 


30 .... 




2.1 


0.09 


1.6 


1.4 


0.16 


1.1 


1.1 


0.10 


1.0 


15 .... 




3.2 


0.14 


2.3 


2.0 


0.24 


1.7 


1.6 


0.15 


1.4 


20 .... 




4.2 


0.18 


3.1 


2.7 


0.32 


2.2 


2.3 


0.20 


1.9 


25 .... 




5.3 


0.23 


3.9 


3.4 


0.40 


2.7 


2.9 


0.25 


2.4 


30 .... 




6.3 


0.27 


4.7 


4.1 


0.48 


3.3 


3.4 


0.30 


2.9 


35 .... 




7.4 


0.32 


5.4 


4.7 


0.56 


3.8 


4.0 


0.35 


3.4 


40 .... 




8.4 


0.36 


6.2 


5.4 


0.64 


4.4 


4.6 


0.40 


3.8 


Roots 


Mangel Wuptzels,l:4.S 


Eutabagas, 1:8.6 | 


Turnips, 1:7.7 


'^'A. . .. 




0.2 


0.03 


0.1 


0.3 


0.03 


0.2 


0.2 


0.03 


0.2 


o .... 




0.4 


0.06 


0.3 


0.5 


0.05 


0.4 


0.5 


0.05 


0.4 


10 .... 




0.9 


0.11 


0.5 


1.1 


0-10 


0.9 


1.0 


0.10 


0.8 


15 .... 




1.4 


0.17 


0.8 


1.6 


0.15 


1.3 


1.4 


0.15 


1.2 


20 .... 




1,8 


0.22 


1.1 


2.^ 


0.20 


1.7 


1.9 


0.20 


1.5 


25 .... 




2.3 


0.28 


1.4 


2.9 


0.25 


2.2 


2.4 


0.2.5 


1.9 


30 .... 




2.7 


0.33 


1.6 


3.4 


0.30 


2.6 


2.9 


0.30 


2.3 


35 .... 




3.2 


0.39 


1.9 


4.0 


0.35 


3.0 


3.3 


0.35 


2.7 


40 ... 




3.6 


0.44 


2.2 


4.6 


1.40 


3.4 


3.8 


0.40 


3.1 


Milk 


Skim Uilk, 1:2.0 j 


Buttermilk, 1:1.7 


i Whey, 1:8.7 


254 .. 


0.2 


0.07 
0.15 


0.1 


0.2 


0.10 


0.2 


0.2 


0.02 


0.1 


5 .... 




0.5 


0.3 


0.5 


0.19 


0.3 


0.3 


0.03 


0.3 


10 .... 




0.9 
1.4 


0.29 
0.44 


0.6 
0.9 


1.0 
1.5 


0.38 
0.57 


0.6 
1.0 


0.6 
0.9 


0.06 
0.09 


0.5 


15 .... 




0.8 


20 ... 




1.9 


0.58 


1.2 


2.0 


0.76 


1.3 


1.2 


0.12 


1.0 


25 .... 




2.4 
2.8 


0.73 
0.87 


1.6 

1.8 


2.5 
3.0 


0.95 
1.14 


1.6 
1.9 


1.5 
1.9 


0.15 
0.18 


1.3 


30 ... 




1.6 


35 ... 




3.2 
3.7 


1.02 
1.16 


2.1 
2.4 


3.5 
4.0 


1.33 


2.2 
2.6 


2.2 
2.5 


0.21 
0.24 


1.8 


40 




2.1 








Hays 


Mized Hay, 1:10.0 


Timothy Hay, 1:16.5 


E7.BlueGr'sHay,l:10.6 


2/2....:... 


2.1 


0.11 


1.1 


2.2 


1 0.07 


1.2 


1.9 


0.09 


1.0 


5 


4.2 
6.4 


0.22 
0.33 


2.2 
3.3 


4.3 
6.5 


0.14 
0.21 


2.3 

3.5 


3.7 
5.6 


0.19 
0.28 


2.0 


7/2 


3.0 


10 


8.5" 
10.6 
12.7 
14.8 
16.9 
21.2 


0.44 
0.55 
0.66 
0.77 
0.88 
1.10 


4.4 
5.5 
6.6 
7.7 
8.8 
11.0 


8.7 
10.9 
13.0 
15.2 
17.4 
21.7 


0.28 
0.35 
0.42 
0.49 
0.56 
0.70 


4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 


7.4 

9.2 

11.1 

13.0 

14.8 
18.5 


0.37 
0.46 
0.56 
0.65 
0.74 
0.93 


3-^ 


12^ 


4.9 


15 


.S.9 


17K 


6.9 


20 


7.9 


25 


9.9 



i87 









READY 


REFERENCE TABLES— Continued. 






Pounds of 
fodder 


"C a; 


p 


U U :;^ 






'a! 


rt-c <u 
'J 




c 

U 


1^. 

■ssb 

ci'-z V 


Hays 


Oat hay, 1:9.9 


Oat and pea hay, i:4.i| 


Hungarian, 


:io.o 


2/2 




2.3 


o.:i,o 


10 


2.2 


0.28 


1.2 


2.1 


0.12 


1.2 


5 




4.6 


0.21 


2.0 


4.4 


0.56 


2.3 


4.2 


0.25 


24 


7K 




6.8 


0.31 


3.0 


6.6 


0.84 


3.5 


6.3 


0.37 


3.6 


10 




9,1 


0.41 


4.0 


8.9 


1.12 


4.6 


8.4 


0.49 


4.9 


nVz 




11.4 


0.51 


5.1 


11.1 


1.40 


5.8 


10.4 


0.62 


6.2 


15 




13.7 


0.62 


6.1 


13.3 


1.68 


6.9 


12.5 


0.74 


7.4 


\n% ... 




16.0 


0.72 


7.1 


I5.5 


1.96 


8.1 


14.6 


0.86 


8.6 


20 




18.2 


0.82 


8.1 


17.7 


2.24 


9.2 


16.7 


0.98 


9.8 


25 . . . 




22.8 


1.03 


10.2 


22.1 


2.80 


11.6 


20.8 


12.3 


12.3 


Hays etc. 


Red clover hay, 1:5.9 


Alsike clover hay, 1:5.5 


Oat straw, i '.},% 3 


2>4 .. .. 




2.1 


0.18 


1.0 


2.3 


0.21 


1.2 


2.3 


0.03 


1.2 


5 




4.2 


0.36 


2.1 


4.5 


0.42 


2.3 


4.6 


0.06 


2.3 


1% 




6.4 


0.53 


3.2 


6.8 


0.63 


3.5 


6.8 


0.09 


3.5 


10 




8.5 


0.71 


4.2 


9.0 


0.84 


4.6 


9.1 


0.12 


4.6 


12>^ 




10.6 


0.89 


5.2 


11.3 


1.05 


5.8 


11.4 


0.15 


5.8 


15 




12.7 


1.07 


6.3 


13.5 


1.26 


6.9 


13.9 


0.18 


6.9 


nVz 




14.8 


1.24 


7.3 


15.8 


1.47 


8.1 


16.0 


0.21 


8.1 


20 




16.9 


1.42 


8.3 


18.1 


1.68 


9.2 


18.2 


0.24 


9.2 


25 .... 




21.2 


1.78 


10.5 


22.6 


2.10 


11.6 


22.7 


0.30 


11.5 


Drv fodder 


Corn fodder, 1:14.3 


Corn stover, i :23 6 


Wheat straw, 1:95.0 


2y^ 




1.4 


0.06 


0.9 


1.5 


0.04 


0.8 


2.3 


0.01 


0.9 


5 . 






2.9 


0.13 


1.8 


3.0 


0.07 


1.7 


4.5 


0.02 


1.9 


7^ . 






4.3 


0.19 


2.7 


4.0 


0.11 


2.5 


6.8 


0.03 


2.8 


10 . 






5.8 


0.25 


3.6 


6.0 


0.14 


Z.7> 


9.0 


0.04 


3.7 


12'^. 






7.2 


0.32 


4.5 


7.5 


0.18 


4.1 


11.3 


0.05 


4.6 


15 . 






8.7 


0.38 


5.4 


9.0 


0.21 


5.0 


13.5 


0.06 


5.6 


nv^. 






10.1 


0.44 


6.2 


10.5 


0.25 


5.8 


15.8 


0.07 


6.5 


20 . 






11.6 


0.50 


7.1 


12.0 


0.28 


6.6 


18.1 


0.08 


7-4 


25 . 






14.5 


0.63 


8.9 


15.0 


0.35 


8.3 


22.6 


0.10 


9.3 


Grains 


Corn meal, i :ii.3 


Corn& cob meal, 1:13.9 


Oats, 1:6. 3 


X 




0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


0.2 


0.01 


0.2 


0.2 


0.02 


0.1 


V7. 








0.4 


0.03 


0.4 


0.4 


0.02 


0.3 


0.4 


0.05 


0.3 


1 








0.9 


0.06 


0.7 


0.9 


0.05 


0.7 


0.9 


0.09 


0.6 


2 








1.7 


0.13 


1.4 


1.7 


0.10 


1.3 


1.8 


0.18 


1.1 


3 








2.6 


0.19 


2.1 


2.6 


0.14 


2.0 


2.7 


0.28 


1.7 


4 








3.4 


0.25 


2.9 


3.4 


0.19 


2.7 


3.6 


0.37 


2.3 


5 








4.3 


0.32 


3.6 


4.3 


0.24 


3.4 


4.5 


0.46 


2.8 


1V7. 








6.4 


0.48 


5.4 


64 


0.36 


5.1 


6.7 


0.69 


4.3 


10 








8 5 


0.63 


7.1 


8.5 


0.48 


6.7 


8.9 


0.92 


5.7 



1 88 



READY REFERENCE TABLES— Continued. 



Pounds of 
feed 



By products 



'A 

1 

2 

3 

4 
5 

10 



By products 



A- 
% 
1 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7>^ 
10 



By products 



1 

2 

3 
4 

5 

10 



1 

2 
3 

4 
5 

7^ 
10 



By products 









Barley, 1:8.0 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 



0.02 
O.O4 
0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.35 
0.44 
0.65 
0.87 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 



Wheat middlings. 1 :4.6 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 



0.03 
0.06 
0.13 
0.25 
0.38 
0.50 
0.63 
0.94 
1.25 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 

2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 



Eye 1:7.8 







0.2 


0.02 






0.4 


0.04 






0.9 


0.09 






1.8 


0.18 






2.7 


0.27 






3.5 


0.36 






4.4 


0.46 






6.6 


0.67 






8.8 


0.89 



02 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 






~ 4) 







Barley 3creenings,l:7.7 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.17 


2.6 


0.26 


3.5 


0.34 


4.4 


0.43 


6.6 


0.65 


8.8 


0.86 



0.2 
0.3 

0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 
3.3 
5.0 
6.6 



o S 



rtT3 
U 



Wheat bran, 1:3.8 



Wheat screenings, 1:5.2 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.05 


0.9 


0.10 


1.8 


0.20 


2.7 


0.29 


3.5 


0.39 


4.4 


0.49 


6.6 


0.74 


8.8 


0.98 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.8 
5.1 



Cottonseed hulls, - 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 



O.L 
0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.1 
1.5 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 



Eye bran, 1;5.1 



0.2 


0.03 


0.4 


0.-06 


0.9 


0-12 


1.8 


0.25 


2.7 


0.37 


3.5 


0.49 


4.4 


0.62 


6.6 


0.92 


8.8 


1.23 



0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.5 
3.1 
4.6 
6.3 



0.2 


0.03 


0.4 


0.06 


0.9 


0.12 


1.8 


0.24 


2.6 


0.36 


3.5 


0.48 


4.4 


0.60 


6.6 


0.90 


8.8 


1.20 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 



Eed-dog flour, 1:3.3 



0.2 


0.04 


0.5 


*0.09 


0.9 


0.18 


1.8 


0.36 


2.7 


0.53 


3.6 


0.71 


4.6 


0.89 


6.8 


1.34 


9.1 


1.78 



0.1 
0.3 

0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 



Csttcnseed meal, 1:1.0 



Linseed meal o.p. 1:1.5 



0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.9 
6.8 
9.0 



O.O81 

0.15 

0.31 

0.62 

0.92 

1.23 

1.54 

2.31 

3.08 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 

2.3 
3.4 
4.6 



0.2 


0.10 


0.5 


0.20 


0.9 


0.40 


1.8 


0.80 


2.9 


1.20 


3.7 


1.60 


4.6 


2.00 


6.9 


3.00 


9.2 


4.00 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 



Linseed meal, n p. 1:1.3 



0.2 


0.08 


0.4 


0.16 


0.9 


0.32 


1.8 


0.65 


2.7 


0.97 


3.6 


1.30 


4.5 


1.62 


6.7 


2.43 


8.9 


3.24 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.3 
1.7 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 



i89 







READY REFERENCE TABLES-( 


Continued. 






Pounds of 
feed 






u 


►^ a; 



-a a; 


1 


£■5 

Hi 


s 


"5 



u 


'J 


By Products 


Flax meal, 1:1,4 


Gluten mcal(Chi.)l:1.5 


Gluten meal, Cream, 1:1.7 


%■■ 




. 0.2 


0.08 


O.I 


0.2 


0.08 


O.I 


0.2 


0.07 


O.I 


%■■ 




. 0.4 


0.16 


0.2 


0.4 


0.16 


0.2 


0.4 


0.15 


0.2 


I 




0.9 


0.32 


0.4 


0.9 


0.32 


0.5 


0.9 


0.30 


0.5 


2 




• 1-9 


0.64 


0.9 


1.8 


0.64 


0.9 


1.8 


0.59 


I.O 


3 • ■ 




2.7 


0.96 


1-3 


2.6 


0.96 


1.4 


2.7 


0.89 


1.5 


4 • 




• 3-6 


1.28 


1-7 


3-5 


1.28 


1.9 


3.6 


1. 19 


2.1 


5 • 




• 4-5 


1.60 


2.2 


4.4 


1.60 


2.3 


4.5 


1.49 


2.6 


7/2.. 




. 6.7 


2.40 


3-3 


6.6 


2.40 


3-5 


6.7 


2.23 


3.9 


lO 




8.9 


3.21 


4.3 


8.8 


3.21 


4.7 


9.0 


2.97 


5.1 


By Products 


Gluten food, Buffalo, 1:2. 4 


Hominy chop, 1:9.2 


Dried brewers grain 1:3.0 


%.r..... 


. 0.2 


0.06 


0.1 


0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


0.2 


0.04 


O.I 


%■■ 




0.4 


0.12 


0.3 


0.5 


0.04 


0.4 


0.5 


0.08 


0.3 


I 




0.9 


0.23 


0.6 


0.9 


0.09 


0.8 


0.9 


0.16 


0.5 


2 . . 




1.8 


0.47 


l.i 


1.8 


0.17 


1.6 


1.8 


0.31 


0.9 


3 •• 




2.7 


0.70 


1.7 


2.8 


0.26 


2.4 


2.8 


0.47 


1.4 


4 .. 




3.6 


0-93 


2.3 


3.7 


0.35 


3-2 


3-7 


0.63 


1.9 


5 •- 




4-5 


1. 17 


2.8 


4.6 


0.44 


4.0 


4.6 


0.79 


2.4 


7/2 . 




. 6.8 


1.74 


4.3 


6.9 


0.65 


6.0 


6.9 


1. 18 


3-5 


lO 




9.0 


2.33 


5.9 


9.2 


0.87 


8.0 


9.2 


1.57 


4.7 


By Products 


Atlas gluten nioal, 1:2. (i 


Malt sprouts, 1:2.2 


Pea meal, 1:3.2 


y^.. 




0.2 


0.06 


0.2 


0.2 


0.05 


0. 1 


0.2 


0.04 


0.1 


%.. 




0-5 


0. 12 


0.3 


0.4 


0.09 


0.2 


0.4 


0.08 


0.3 


I 




0.9 


0.25 


0.6 


0.9 


0.I9 


0.4 


0.9 


0.17 


0.5 


2 




1.8 


0.49 


1-3 


1.8 


0.37 


0.8 


1.8 


0.33 


I.I 


3 •• 




2.8 


0.74 


1.9 


2.7 


0.56 


1.2 


2.7 


0.50 


1.6 


4 .. 




■ 3-7 


0.98 


2.6 


3.6 


0.74 


1.6 


3-6 


0.67 


2.1 


5 •■ 




. 4.6 


1.23 


3-2 


4-5 


0.93 


2.0 


4.5 


0.84 


2.7 


7/.. 




6.9 


1.85 


4.9 


6.7 


1.40 


3.0 


6.7 


1.26 


4.0 


lO 




9.2 


2.46 


6.5 


9.0 


1.86 


4.0 


9.0 


1.68 


5.3 



CONCLUSION. 

In conclusion we desire to state that the object of 
this book is to place before the farmer and dairyman 
such information as will be valuable and practical, in 
as concise and plain a manner as possible, and to make 
a plea in behalf of the silo as an improver of the finan- 
cial condition of the farmer. That the silo is a prime 
factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of 
doubt. The silo is not the sum total in itself, but as 
an adjunct, and, in the case of dairying, a Jiecessary 
adjunct to successful and profitable methods, its value 
is difficult to overestimate. 

One of the greatest values of the silo is that as an 
innovation it becomes a stepping-stone to better meth- 
ods in general ; it stimulates its owner and spurs him 
on to see just how good and far reaching results he 
can obtain from his revised system of management. 
It invites a little honest effort, and coupled with this 
it never fails. It enables its owner not onlj' to do 
what he has been unable to do before, but things he 
has done without its help the silo enables him to do at 
less cost than before. The solution of the problem of 
cost of manufacture is necessary to every successful 
producer, and as the proposition is constantly chang- 
ing, the solutions of our forefathers, or even of a gen- 
eration ago, no longer avail. The silo is not an entic- 
ing speculation b}^ means of which something can be 
gotten out of nothing, but a sound business proposi- 
tion, and has come to stay. The voices of thousands 
of our best farmers and dair^^men sing its praises, be- 
cause it has brought dollars into their pockets, and 
increased enjoyment to them in their occupations and 
their homes. 



CONCI.USION. 191 

Have you coWvS ? Do you feed stock ? Do you not 
need a silo ? Is it not worthy of A^our best thought 
and consideration ? You owe it to yourself to make 
the most you can out of the opportunities before you. 
Do IT NOW ! 



GLOSSARY. 

Ad libitum. At pleasure ; in case of feeding farm 
animals, all they will eat of a particular feeding stuff. 

Albuminoids. A group of substances of the highest 
importance in feeding farm animals, as they furnish 
the material from which flesh, blood, skin, wool, ca- 
sein of milk, and other animal products are manu- 
factured. Another name for albuminoids is flesh- 
forming substances or protein. 

Ash. The portion of a feeding stuff which remains 
when it is burned, the incombustible part of foods. 
The ash of feeding stuffs goes to make the skeleton of 
young animals, and in case of milch cow^s a portion 
thereof goes into the milk as milk ash. 

Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms, usually 
in the form of a jointed rod-like filament, and found 
in putrefying organic infusions. They are widely 
diffused in nature, and multiply wnth marvelous 
rapidity. Certain species are active agents in fermen- 
tation, while others appear to be the cause of certain 
infectious diseases. 

Balanced j'ation. A combination of feeding stuffs 
containing the various nutrients in such proportions 
and amounts as will nurture the animals for twenty- 
four hours, with the least \vaste of nutrients. 

By- Products. A secondary product of an industry ; 
cottonseed meal is a by-product of the cotton oil in- 
dustry; skim milk and butter milk are by-products of 
butter making. 

Carbhydrates. A group of nutrients rich in carbon 
and containing oxygen and hydrogen in the propor- 
tion in which they form water. The most important 
carbhydrates found in feeding stuffs are starch, gums 
and crude fiber f celulose.-) 



GI.OSSARY. 193 

Carbon. A chemical element, which with the ele- 
ments of water makes up the larger part of the dry 
matter of plants and animals. 

Carbonic acid. A poisonous gas arising from the 
combustion of coal or wood It is formed in all kinds 
of fermentations and therefore occurs in the siloing of 
fodders. 

Cellulose. See Crude fiber. 

Crude fiber. The frame work forming the walls of 
cells of plants. It is composed of cellulose and lignin, 
the latter being the woody portion of plants and 
wholly indigestible. 

Digestible matter. The portion of feeding stuffs 
which is digested by animals, i. e., brought into solu- 
tion or semi solution by the digestive fluids, so that it 
may serve as nourishment for the animal and furnish 
material for the production of meat, milk, wool, eggs, 
etc. 

Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remain- 
ing after the water contained therein has been re- 
moved . 

Ensilage. An obsolete word for Silage. Used as 
verb, likewise obsolete, for to silo; to ensile also some- 
times incorrectly used for the process of placing green 
fodders into a silo. 

Enzemes. An unorganized or chemical compound 
of vegetable or animal origin, that causes fermenta- 
tion, as, pepsin, or rennet. 

Ether extract. The portion of a feeding stuff dis- 
solved by ether ; mainly fat or oil in case of concen- 
trated feeding stuffs ; in coarse fodders, fat mixed 
with a number of substances of uncertain feeding 
value, like wax, chlorophyll (the green coloring matter 
of plants), etc. 

Fat. See Ether extract. 

Feeding standard. A numerical expression of the 
amounts of the various digestible subtances in a com- 
bination of feeding stuffs best adapted to give good 



194 GIvOSSARY. 

results as regards production of animal products, like 
beef, pork, milk, etc. 

Indian corn. Zea Mays, the great American cereal 
and fodder-producing plant. 

Hydrogen. A chemical element, a gas. Combined 
with oxygen it forms water, with oxgen and carbon it 
forms carbhydrates and fat; with oxygen, carbon and 
nitrogen (with small amounts of sulphur and phos- 
phorus) it forms the complex organic nitrogenous sub- 
stances known 2,'^ protein albumiyioid substances. 

Legumes. Plants bearing seeds in pods and capable 
of fixing the gaseous nitrogen of the air, so that it be- 
comes of value to the farmer and wall supply nitro- 
genous food substances to farm animals. Examples, 
the different kinds of clover, peas, beans, vetches, etc. 
Of the highest importance agriculturally, as soil re- 
novators, and in supplying farm- grown protein foods. 

Nitrogen. A chemical element, making up four- 
fifths of the air. The central element of protein. See 
under Hydrogeji. 

Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff 
remaining when w^ater, fat. protein, crude fiber, and 
ash are deducted. It includes starch, sugar, pentosans, 
and other substances. It is so called because it does 
not contain any^ nitrogen. 

Nitrogenous substances. Substances containing 
nitrogen (w^hich Sfe). 

Nutrient. A food constituent or group of food con- 
stituents capable of nourishing animals. 

Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible pro- 
tein to the sum of digestible carbhydrates and fat in a 
ration, the per cent of fat being multiplied by 2^, and 
added to the per cent of carbhydrates (crude fiber 
plus nitrogen-free extract). 

Orga?iic matter. The portion of the dry matter 
which is destroyed on combustion (dry^ matter minus 
ash). 

Oxygen. A chemical element found in a free state 



I 



GLOSSARY. 195 

in the air, of which it makes up about one-fifth, and in 
combination with hydrogen in water; oxygen is also a 
rarely-lacking component of organic substances. See 
Car bhy drat es and liydrogen. 

Protein. A general name for complex organic com- 
pounds mainly made up from the elements carbon, 
hydrogen, oxj^gen and nitrogen. Crude protein in- 
cludes all organic nitrogen compounds, while true pro- 
tein or albiwiinoids (which see) only includes such 
nitrogenous substances in feeding stuffs as are capable 
of forming muscle and other tissues in the animal 
body. 

Ration. The amount of food that an animal eats 
during twenty-four hours. 

Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, includ- 
ing such feeding stuffs as hay, silage, straw, corn 
fodder, roots, etc. Concentrated feeding stuffs are 
sometimes called graiji-feeds or concentrates, in con- 
tradistinction to roughage. 

Silage. The succulent feed taken out of a silo. 
Formerly called ensilage. 

Silo. An air-tight structure used for the preserva- 
tion of green, coarse fodders in a succulent condition. 
As verb, to place green fodders in a silo. 

Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a 
barn or enclosure with fresh grass or green fodders, as 
rye, corn, oats, Hungarian grass, etc. 

Starch. One of the most common carbhydrates in 
feeding stuffs insoluble in water, but readily digested 
and changed into sugar in the process of digestion. 

Succulent feeds. Feeding stuffs containing consider- 
able water, like green fodders, silage, roots and 
pasture. 

SuTnnier silage. Silage intended to be fed out dur- 
ing the summer and early fall to help out short 
pastures. 

Summer silo. A Silo used for the making of sum- 
mer silage. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Advantages of the silo 13, 153 

Alfalfa silage 114 

Animal body, composition of the 161 

Analyses of feeding- stuffs. 179 

Ash 162, 164 

Average composition of silage crops . . 178 

Beet-pulp silage 117 

Beets, cost of, per acre 154 

Beef cattle, silage for 144 

Blower elevators 131 

Brick silos 85 

Capacity of round silos 31 

Carbonic-acid poisoning in silos, danger from 133 

Certified milk, silage in production of 141 

Chemical composition of silage 178 

Chute for a round wooden silo. ... 82 

Circles, circumferences and areas of 81 

Clover silage Ill, 136 

Clover silage, cost of 112 

Clover, time of cutting for the silo 113 

Clover, j'ield per acre of 113 

Corn, cutting of, in the field 120 

Corn land, preparation of 104 

Corn, methods of planting 110 

Corn silage vs. fodder corn 156 

Corn silage vs. hay 155 

Corn silage vs. roots 153 

Corn, siloing of, "ears and all" 123 

Corn, see also Indian corn and Fodder corn. 

Corners of square silos methods of excluding air from 90 

Cost of beets per acre 154 

Cost of a pound of digestible dry matter in different 

feeding stuffs 184 

Conclusion 190 

Cost of corn silage 112, 154 

Cost of silos 95 

Covering silage ^ 134 

Cow-pea silage 114 

Comparative losses in dry curing 15 

Corn time of cutting for silo 107 

Composition oj the animal body 161 

Composition of the silage crops 178 

Composition of feeding stuffs 163 

Crude fiber 165 

Cutter and power, size of 127 

Definitions of terms used 192 



INDEX. 197 

Description of round wooden silos 38, 60 

Description of "Ohio" silag-e cutters 128, 131 

Digestibility of Foods . . 166 

Doors for silos 46, 73 

Ears and all, siloing- of corn. 123 

Economy of storage 21 

Elevators, pneumatic 131 

Ensilage, see Silage. 

Estimating of materials for silos 98 

Feeders's guide, etc 161 

Feeding stuffs, composition of 163 

Feeding standards 168, 170, 171 

Feeding of silage 139 

Field-curing of fodder corn, losses in 13, 16 

Filling of silo 22, 120, 125 

Freezing of silage. 137 

General requirements for silos 26 

Grain mixtures for dairy cows 175 

Guide, a feeders' 161 

Hauling corn from field, rack or sled for 122 

Hills or drills, planting of corn in 110 

History of the silo ... 9 

Horizontal girts, silos with 91 

Horses, silage for 145 

How to feed silage 139 

How to figure out rations 172 

Indian corn, soil adapted for 104 

Indian corn, methods of planting 110 

Indian corn . 104 

Indian corn, chemical changes in 108 

Indian corn, increase in food ingredients from tasseling 

to ripeness . 109 

Indian corn, varieties of, to be planted for the silo 105 

Indian corn, see also Corn and Fodder Corn, 

Introduction. 9 

Eining for silos '. . 49, 54 

Eosses in dry curing 13, 16 

Eosses in the siloing process 17 

Eosses in siloing Alfalfa 19 

Eow wagon for hauling corn 122 

Eucern, See Alfalfa. 

Materials for the silo 69 

Metal bucket chain elevators 128 

Milch cows, silage rations for 142 

Milch cows, silage for ... 139 

Mineral Matter 162, 164 

Modifications of "Wisconsin" silo 55 



198 INDEX. 

New Jersey Experient Station silo 130 

Nitrogen-free extract. 165 

Number of staves required for stave silos 81 

Nutritive Ratio . 169' 

Octagonal silos 91 

"Ohio" silage cutters, description of 128, 131 

Painting the silo lining 54 

Plastered round wooden silos 56 

Planting corn, in hills or in drills 110 

Planting corn, methods of 110 

Planting corn, thickness of 110 

Pneumatic elevators 131 

"Poultrymen's silos"-.. 153 

Poultrjs silage for 152 

Preparation of corn land 110 

Preservation of silos 101 

Protein 162, 164- 

Rations, how to figure out 172 

Rack, low-down, for hauling- corn 122 

Rations, silage, for dairy cows 142 

Relative value of feeding stuffs 167 

Read3^ reference tables 185 

Roof for the silo 51, 67, 75, 76 

Round silos , 38 

Round silos, capacity of 31 

Sheep, silage for 148 

Silage, alfalfa 114 

Silage cart 139 

Silage, chemical composition of 178 

Silage, clover Ill 

Silage, cost of 112 

Silage crops 104 

Silage, feeding of 139 

Silage for horses 145 

Silage for milch cows 139, 142 

Silage for poultry 152 

Silage for sheep * 148 

Silage for beef cattle 144 

Silage for swine I5I 

Silage, freezing of 137 

Silage, quantities of, required for different herds 32 

Silage rations for milch cows 142 

Silage, how to feed 139 

Silos, acreage to fill 32 

Silos, how to build 26 

Silos, general requirements for 26 

Silos, on the form of 32, 37 



INDEX. 1 99 

Silos, the fillifig" process 125 

Silos, time of filling 22, 120 

Silos, roof for 51 

■Silos, round all-stone 82, 86 

Silos, round wooden 38 

Silos, round wooden, capacity of.., 31 

Silos, chute for 82 

Silos, cost of ,.... 54, 55, 58, 76,90, 95 

Silds, location of ,. 36 

Silos, specifications for •.... 38, 55, 56, 64, 92 

Silos, square, methods of excluding- air from corners of 90 

Silos, stone 86 

Silos, value in intensive farming- 24 

Silos, ventilation of 52 

Silos with horizontal g"irts >. 91 

Silos, foundation of 38, 39, 41, 43, 64, 92 

Size of silo required ..., 29 

Silos, brick lined 60 

Silos, all brick 85 

Silos, in the barn 87 

Silos, Octag-onal .... 91 

Size of cutter and power required 127 

Sorg-hum silag-e 117 

Southern and Northern varieties of ^ corn, comparative 

yields of . . . 106 

Soiling- crops, table of . 183 

Soiling- crops, time of planting and feeding 183 

Soja Beans 116 

Specifications for a round wooden silof "'Wisconsin" . . 38 

Specifications for a stave silo 64 

Stave silos 60, 77, 79 

Stave silos, calculation of staves required for . . 81 

Stave silos, roof of 67 

Stave silos, specifications for 64 

Staves, calculation of number required 81 

Steers, silage for 144 

Stone silos 86 

Succulence 20 

Swine, silage for 151 

Thickness of planting corn 110 

Time of filling the silo 22, 120 

Time of cutting corn for the silo 107 

Varieties of corn to be planted for the silo 105 

Water, use of in filling silos 135 

Weight of concentrated feeds 182 

Wisconsin Experiment Station silos, descriptions of 59, 60 
Yields of clover per acre 113 




03 


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*^ 


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*: 






f 


<» 


o 


_» 


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ft} 


«> 


ft» 


(= 
o 


^s 


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20I 



iH 



'Ohio" Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter 

Showing New Metal Bucket Carrier, Set for Right-Angle Delivery. 




Fig. 784, No. n. 



SIZES AND PRICES. 

No. 11 With two knives, 11 inches long. 4 lengths cut $40.00 

No. 1 1 With four knives, 1 1 inches long, 4 lengths cut. . 45.00 

Extira gears to cut 4 inches long 3.00 
Reversible carrier, angle or straight delivery. 

12 feet long or less. • • • • 33.75 

Straight-delivery carrier, without reversible at- 
tachments 30.25 

Additional length over 12 feet, extra per foot . 1.70 

Write for Discounts. 



202 

Smallest Size Mnsilage Cutter. 

The illustration is a good representation of the 
smallest size ensilage cutter and it shows also the new 
metal bucket carrier set for right- angle delivery. This 
is the style carrier manufactured for this machine and 
it can be set at right or left angle, or straightaway. 

Carrhr Any Length. 

Has best tool steel knives, readily adjusted to cut- 
ter bar. Strong, simple gearing ; safety fly wheel, 
safety throw-out feed lever, four lengths of cut. 

Has Capacity to Fill 50- Ton Silos 

The cutter is substantial, has large capacity, and is 
adapted to cut all kinds of dry feed as well as ensilage. 
It has capacity to fill 50-ton silos, and even larger ones, 
but as this work necessitates a force of men and teams, 
and taking also into account the liability of frost, own- 
ers of silos usually give preference to a larger machine, 
so that the cutting may be done more quickly. 

Mnsilage Maintains More Cows, 
Produces More Milk. 
Use of an ^levator. 

The first and principal use of elevators of this kind 
is to convey cut ensilage into the silo. Other uses are 
to deliver dry cut feed, of whatever kind, into bays, 
bins, lofts and other places away from the machine, 
which saves the expense of a man. 

Capacity, Speed, Power, Size of Pulley. 

Dry feed, 2500 to 3000 pounds; ensilage, 3 to 4 tons 
per hour. Speed, 450 to 600 revolutions per minute. 
Power, 2 horse-power. Can also be run by one or two 
horse tread power. Pulleys, size sent, 12 x 4-inch face; 
diameters 6, 8, 10 and 15 inches can be furnished. 

Weight. 

No. II Cutter, 420 pounds. Reversible carrier, 12 
feet long, 200 pounds. Extension, per foot, 8 pounds. 



203 



''Ohio" Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter 
And New Straightaway IMetal Bucket Carrier 

Connected Up Ready for Use. 




Fig. 784, Nos. 13, J6 and 18. 

sizp:vS and prices. 



No. 15 With 2 knives, 13 inches long-, 4 leng-ths of cut $60.00 

No. 13 With 4 knives, 13 inches long-, 4 lengths of cut . 65.00 

No. 16 With 4 knives, 16 inches long-, 4 lengths of cut. . 90.00 

No. 18 With 4 knives, 18 inches long. 4 lengths of cut 120.00 

Extra gears to cut 4 inches long-, vvrith 2 knives. . 4.00 

Straight delivery carrier for either size, 12 ft. long- 33.50 

Swivel carrier for either size, 12 ft. long or under 45.00 

Carrier, additional length over 12 ft. long, per foot 1.70 

Wood cover, to fasten w^ith hooks and eyes, per foot .25 



204 

Brief Comment on General Construction. 

The frame or stand is heav^' and substantial, wliich makes it stiff and 
enduring". The feed box is wide and roomy, and reinforced at the top by 
a screw throug'h the iron work and at the rear by ang-le irons. It also has 
an extension at the bottom to receive a platform, which is sometimes 
needed in feeding. The iron work is of sufficient weig-ht to give streng-th, 
and the bearing-s are heavy and close up to machine. The shaft, knives 
and knife heads are of the best and every part is properly put tog'ether. 
It has the I'WO extended front and hood, the safety iiy wheel, guards over 
g'ears, metal delivery chute, and ever3- point throug-hout of the latest and 
best. 

Feeding Device Clearly Outlined in Cut. 

The chain of feed g^ear pinions which operate the upper feed roller, the 
backwardl3'-inclined curved slot that the upper roller moves in, the adjust- 
able feed lever and the spring-s underneath, are all nicely- defined here. 
This chain of g'ears vibrate as the feed roller raises and lowers, j-et their 
movable bearings maintain their respective distances to each other and 
keep the g'ears properlv in mesh without binding- or friction, which gives 
a uniform motion to the roller. These features make the machine a strong- 
feeder. This feeding- device is made under U. S. patents. 

The feed lever is adjustable and its first use is to disconnect the chain 
of g'ears to chang-e the leng-thof cut. The length of cut is readily chang-ed 
by either reversing- the gear pinion on lower roller shaft or substituting a 
d liferent pinion. Another use ef this lever is to start and stop the feed. If 
the power runs down, or the machine clogs for any re&son whatever, or an 
accident occurs, the feed can be stopped instantly b.v grasping this lever. 

New Straight Metal Bucket Carrier. 

The cut shows, first, the new straightaway metal bucket carrier and 
how to attach it to the machine; second, the front to the cutter and how 
it gives room for the cut feed to get awa^' from the cylinder and how it 
will conduct the ensilage into the carrier. '■'' 

The illustration is made from a photograph of the "Ohio" Standard 
Cutter No. 16 and a new straightaway- bucket carrier. This is the present 
style straight carrier and it is made for sizes Nos. 13. 16, 18 and 19. It is 
applicable to cutters with extended tables and traveling feed aprons, as 
well as those like the illustration, and is recommended wherever a straight 
carrier can be used. It is easier to set up and move than the reversible 
carrier. 

Metal buckets upwards of two inches high are now used, instead of 
low wood slats, and the sides oj the carrier are more than one inch higher. 
This gives the carrier ample capacity- to take awaj- the.cnt feed a> fast as 
it comes from the cutter, and ii lessens the necessity' for a cover, except 
when there is a high wind or verv steep elevation. 

Carriers 50, 60 and jo Fetft Long. 

At this time the average lengths of carriers are 34 to 42 feet; they have 
been supplied as long as 50, 60 and 70 feet, and work perfectl}-, driven in 
the regular way from the bottom. 

Adjustment Provided to Take Up Wear. 

There is adjustment provided at the top. to take up wear in the chain 
or make anv necessary adjustment. The oil cups in top irons are filled 
with waste, which holds the oil. Keep all bearings well oiled with good 
qnalitv machine oil. 

Capacity, Power Speed and Weight. 

Capacity, cutting ensilasre. No. 13.4 to 6 tons; No. 16, 4 to 10 tons; N(). 
18, S to 12 tons per hour. Power, No. 13, 2 to 4; No. 16,2 to 8; No. IS, 4 to 8 
actual horse-power each. Speed, either size, 45ii to 60J revolutions per 
minute. Size of pullevs furnished with machines, 12 .x 6-inch face. Di- 
ameters 6, 8, 10 and 14 inches when wanted. 

Cutters: No. 13, 560 pounds; No. 16, 620 pounds; No. 18, 700 pounds. 
Carrier: 12-foot straightaway complete, 240 pounds; 12-foot swivel com- 
plete. 315 pounds. Extra length per foot, either style, 10 pounds. 

The special features described under the different machines are dis- 
tinctive "Ohio" features, and are on all "Ohio" machines. The safety 
feed levers, patent adjustable gears, safety fly wheel, full width throat, 
etc., are on all "Ohio" machines alike, and are some of the points that 
have made these machines so universallv successful and satisfactory. 



-205 



"Ohio" Sell-feed Ensilage Cutter 
And New Metal Bucket Swivel Carrier. 




Fig. 785, Nos. 13, 16 and 18. 



SIZE.S AND PRICES. 

No. 13 With four 13-inch knives, cuts 14,.'^, 54; and 1 inch S 95.00 

No. 1 6 With four 1 6-inch knives, cuts }i, M, H and 1 inch 1 20.00 

No. 1 8 With four 1 8-inch knives, cuts U, '^, % and 1 inch 155.00 

Extra gears to cut four inches long,for Nos. 13, 1 6 or 18 4.00 

Swivel carrier 1 2 feet long, for No. 1 3 Cutter 45.00 

Swivel carrier 1 2 feet long, for No. 1 6 Cutter 45.00 

Swivel carrier 1 2 feet long, for No. 1 8 Cutter 45.00 

Extra length, per foot, for Nos. 13, 1 6 or 18 Cutters 1.70 

Wood cover, with hooks and eyes to fasten, for Nos. 13, 16 or 

1 8 Cutters, per foot ■ .25 

Write for Discounts. 



2o6 

The Illustratian^ 

It correctly represents the new "Ofiio" Self- Feed 
Ensilage Cutter and the present pattern metal bucket 
swivel carrier, and shows how the two are connected 
up ready for use and how the carrier is driven from 
the cutter. 

The traveling feed table, long enough to receive a 
bundle of corn is also shown, and is a valuable feature. 

Self- feed means that it is only necessary to deliver 
the corn into the feed box. It goes through itself^ 
which point alone saves the user one of the hard jobs 
on the farm. It increases capacity 33^ per cent, and 
more. It saves 75 per cent, of labor feeding and two 
men constantly pushing to get the feed through the 
rolls are no longer needed. Customers frequentl}^ 
write: "We have to hustle to keep the machine sup- 
plied with corn." "Machine has done more than you 
recommended," etc. The corn can be fed in armfuls 
or in bundles from the harvester, the feed box being 
ample for either. 

The swivel carrier, also shown in the cut, enables 
the user to set the machine in any desired position. 
The base and wearing parts are self-contained, free 
from dirt and rigid and durable. 

Power, Capacity, Speed and Pulley. 

No. 13 requires 4 to 6 horse- power and its capacity 
is 8 to 12 tons of ensilage corn per hour. No. 16 
requires 6 to 8 horse-power and its capacity is 12 to 15 
tons ensilage corn per hour. No. 18 requires 6 to 10 
horse-power and its capacity is 14 to 20 tons ensilage 
corn per hour. The pulley is 12 x 6-inch face, and 
sizes 6, 8, 10 and 15 inches diameter, when wanted. 
The proper speed is 450 to 600 revolutions per minute. 



^q7 



''OWo^ Monarch Selt-feed Ensilage Cutter 
And New Metal Bucket Swivel Carrier. 




Fig, 794. 
SIZE AND PRICE. 

No. \ 9 CuttBr with four 1 9*inch knives, cuts '2. H and 1 inch • • • • $200.00 

Extra gears which cut 4 inches long- with two knives 5.50 

1 2-foot straight carrier 40.00 

12-foot swivel carrier 55.00 

Additional length, per foot • 2.23 

Wood cover, with hooks and eyes to fasten, per foot .35 



2oS 

A new machine, heavy and powerful, to meet the 
demand for a heavy unbreakable machine for larger 
users and transient work. It has heavy, strong frame 
and gears; self-feed, two safety levers; steel knife 
shaft i^ inches in diameter; strong knife heads, four 
bolts in each knife: simple adjustment arrangement for 
knives; enormous capacitv; great durability, and is 
guaranteed in every retpect, as are all Ohio machines. 
It cannot fail to please. 

Capacity. 

17 to 25 tons of ensilage per hour. 

Size of Pulley f Power, Speed and Weight. 

The pulle}' is idx8-inch face and is leather covered. 
Necessary power, 8 to 12 horse-power. Speed, 600 
revolutions per minute. Weight of cutter, iioo 
pounds; straight carrier i2feetlong, 355 pounds; swiv- 
el carrier same length, 480 pounds. Extra length per 
foot, 14 pounds. 

"Ohio'' Ensilage Cutters are also made with 20 and 
24 inch knives, these sizes being heavy and pro- 
portioned correspondingly. They are not illustrated 
here, but are shown and described in the regular 
catalogue describing "Ohio"' Ensilage Cutters. 

"OHIO" STANDS FOR BEST. 



209 



"Ohio" Self -reed Ensilage Cutter 



With Direct-Blast Blower Elevator. 




Fig. 793. 

SIZES AND PRICKS. 

No. 13 Cutter, with four 13-inch knives, cuts }4, K and 1 inch $ 95.00 

No. 1 6 Cutter, with four 1 6-inch knives, cuts }4, % and 1 inch ..... 1 20.00 

No. 1 8 Cutter, with four 1 8-inch knives, cuts >^, ^ and 1 inch 155.00 

Extra gears which will cut 4 inches long with two knives 4.00 

No. 1 9 Cutter, with four 1 9-inch knives, cuts }4, H and 1 inch 200.00 

Extra gears to cut 4 inches long with two knives 5.50 

Blower comp ete with 2-foot hood for top of pipe 75.00 

8-inch galvanized pipe in 4, 6 and 10-foot lengths for No. 13, 

per foot .80 

1 0-inch galvanized pipe in 4, 6, 8 and 1 0-foot lengths for No. 

16, No. 18 or No. 19, per foot 1.00 

Liberal Discounts given. 



2IO 

A Successful Blower ^levator for the 
''Ohio" Cutters. 

The picture on the opposite pag-e clearly outlines a new 
blower or wind elevator in connection with the "Ohio" Self- 
Feed Bnsilag-e Cutter, and one that is adapted for use with 
the four sizes, Nos. 13, 16, 18 and 19. The blower is wide 
and stands 5}^ feet in diameter, which g-ives ample capacity 
to carry away and elevate the cut ensilag^e as fast as it 
comes from these larg-e capacity cutters. 

The Blower levator and What It Will Do. 

The Blower ^levator is a new method for elevating- cut 
silage into the silo. The one shown here will do this work 
perfectly, the only point being- to maintain proper speed, 
and to set the pipe as nearly perpendicular as possibie. 
Running- under these conditions, the blower will elevate the 
cut corn as fast as the machines cut it. 

How Constructed. 

The fan case being- made of heavy sheet steel and painted 
with an iron-clad paint, insures strength and durability. 
The fan wing-s are made of 34^ -inch steel, riveted to heavy 
bar iron arms which are bolted to rim of solid center wheel, 
then the ends hooked and let into the wheel, making- the 
fan absolutely safe. The fan wheel is mounted on the oppo- 
site end of pulley shaft, which makes the drive direct. 

Inlet in Fan Case. 

The inlet is just below the center, a little forward under 
the knife cylinder, where the exhaust catches the cut corn 
and by aid of the ag-itator draws it into the fan. 

The Pipe and Pipe Connection. 

The pipe is 10 inches in dianeter and made of heavy galvan- 
ized steel with seams on outside, and is very rigid. It is made 
in 4, 6, 8 and 10-foot lengths, with 10-inch slip joints and a 
clamping band at each joint. The upper end of pipe is a curved 
elbow, which conducts the corn into the silo. The pipe con- 
nection to fan case is a ball and-socket joint, which allows the 
pipe to oscillate to the right or left and straightaway. 

How the Pipe Must be Set. 

The pipe must be set as nearly perpendicular as possible. 
Kxperience has proven this to be the case. If lateral deliv- 
er^^ is desired it should be accomplished by means of a long, 
easy elbow at the top, and not by giviug^ a low slant to the 
entire leng-th of pipe. 



211. 

*'Ohio^^ Self-Feed Cntter Well Known. 

Upwards of one-half of the trade for ensilag-e cutters spec- 
ifies the self-feed machine. They have been used success- 
fully in every part of the country and hundreds of letters 
have been written commenting- upon their merits. The new 
blowef or wind elevator increases their efficiency in this 
point. The blower is made fast to the machine and the pipe 
can be erected and taken down in about one-tenth the time 
required to set up and move a chain elevator, 
Self-Feed S&ves Labor and Dollars, 

Self-feed saves more labor and earns more dollars than any 
other point about an ensilage cutter. It saves three-fourths 
of the labor feeding ensilage and the cutting capacity is in- 
creased 333<3 per cent. 
Capacity and Length of Pipe. 

No. 13, 8 to 12 tons; No. 16, 12 to 15 tons; and No. 18, 14 to 
20 tons of ensilage per hour; No. 19, 17 to 25 tons of ensilage 
per hour. Feed the cutter regularly and keep speed up, and 
the blower will elevate the ensilage as stated and to the 
satisfaction of the user. These four machines will cut all 
kinds of dry feed, and with blower elevator and pipe it can 
be conveyed to any part of the barn. The perpendicular 
height from ground to center of opening in silo is ample 
length of pipe for cutter. 
Size of Pulley, Power, Speed and Weight. 

The pulley is 14x6-inch face and is leather covered. The 
necessary power to drive these machines up to capacity and 
properly elevate the ensilage is as follows: No. 13, 8 to 10 
horse-power; No. 16, 10 to 12 horse-power; No. 18, 12 to 16 
horse-power; No. 19, 16 horse-power. Speed, 650 revolutions 
per minute. Weight of No. 13, 850 pounds; No. 16, 925 
pounds; No, 18, 965 pounds; No, 19, 1145, pounds; blower and 
fan wings, 450 pound; pipe, 4 pounds per foot. 
Will Do Successful Work With Less Power Than Indicated 

Under ordinary conditions either size will cut and elevate 
green corn at the rate ( f one ton of ensilage, for each horse- 
power applied, per hour. The power indicated is necessary to 
run the machines to full capacity, and it is ample. Some may 
not have that much power and might not want to provide a 
sufficient force of men and teams to d liver corn to keep the 
cutters supplied. The machines are light running, and know- 
ing the power necessary to cut and elevate green corn, parties 
with less power than indicated can run these machines success- 
fully, and will know how to feed them and what capacity to ex- 
pect. The only point is to keep the speed up and the machine 
will do its work. 



212' 



GUARANTEE. 

The "Ohio" machines are warranted to be well 
made of good materials. They will do what is 
claimed for them if operated according ro instructions, 
and they are so guaranteed to every purchaser. 
THE SII.VER MFG. CO., 

Salem, Ohio, 

U. S. A. 
Established 1854. 

Catalogues, descriptive matter, testimonials and 
photographs will be cheerfully furnished on request 
to the manufacturers. 



BiNDERY 



